module 2 POPULATION

Population Explosion
•The rapid and dramatic rise in world population that has occurred over the last few hundred years. The world's population increased from 1.65 billion in 1900 to 3.02 billion in 1960. The United Nations estimated that the population reached 6 billion in late 1999. Thus, the size of the population nearly quadrupled in the span of 100 years, a historically unprecedented rate of increase.

Population growth
Population in itself is NOT the problem. The problem is fast rate of growth of people which is giving rise to overpopulation.
Overpopulation refers to when an organism's numbers exceed the carrying capacity of its habitat. In common parlance, the term usually refers to the relationship between the human population and its environment, the earth.
Overpopulation is not simply a function of the size or density of the population. Overpopulation can be determined using the ratio of population to available sustainable resources. If a given environment has a population of ten, but there is food or drinking water enough for only nine, then that environment is overpopulated.

How to set equlibrium between population & environment ?

INTRODUCTION

Overpopulation has had a major impact on the environment of Earth starting at least as early as the 20th century. Many posit that the human population has expanded, enabled by over-exploiting natural resources, with resultant adverse impacts upon biodiversity, aquifer sustainability, climate change and even human health. There are also indirect economic consequences of this environmental degradation in the form of ecosystem services attrition.

STEPS FOR SETTING EQUILIBRIUM

• Toward a livable future
  How people preserve or abuse the environment could largely determine whether living standards improve or deteriorate. Growing human numbers, urban expansion, and resource exploitation do not bode well for the future. Without practicing sustainable development, humanity faces a deteriorating environment and may even invite ecological disaster.
  


• Taking action:

Many steps toward sustainability can be taken today. These include: using energy more efficiently, managing cities better, phasing out subsidies that encourage waste, [etc.]

• Stabilizing population:

While population growth has slowed, the absolute number of people continues to increase (by about 1 billion every 13 years). Slowing population growth would help improve living standards and would buy time to protect natural resources. In the long run, to sustain higher living standards, world population size must stabilize.

• Slowing population growth

Environmentalists and economists increasingly agree that efforts to protect the environment and to achieve better living standards can be closely linked and are mutually reinforcing. Slowing the increase in population, especially in the face of rising per capita demand for natural resources, can take pressure off the environment and buy time to improve living standards on a sustainable basis.3,8,11,12

• Boost Living Standards

As population growth slows, countries can invest more in education, health care, job creation, and other improvements that help boost living standards.11 In turn, as individual income, savings, and investment rise, more resources become available that can boost productivity. This dynamic process has been identified as one of the key reasons that the economies of many Asian countries grew rapidly between 1960 and 1990.5

• Green development

It is a land use planning concept that includes consideration of community-wide or regional environmental implications of development, as well as site-specific green building concepts. This includes city planning, environmental planning, architecture, and community building

• Conservation & Management of Environment

Environmental sustainability is defined as the ability of the environment to continue to function properly indefinitely. This involves meeting the present needs of humans without endangering the welfare of future generations. The goal of environmental sustainability is to minimize environmental degradation, and to halt and reverse the processes they lead to.

This includes conservation of

Biome •In-situ conservation • Ex-situ conservatiosn

Water management

Natural Resource management

Conservation of atmosphere

Effects of overpopulation
•Inadequate fresh water
•Depletion of natural resources
•Increased levels of air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination and noise pollution

•Deforestation and loss of ecosystems. Changes in atmospheric composition and consequent global warming
•Mass species extinctions
•Poverty.

Remedies of Effects of overpopulation
•Water conservation & management
•Sustainable development
•Pollution control
•Natural & artificial regeneration of forests
•Social Awareness

Poverty & Population
•High infant and child mortality High rates of infant mortality are caused by poverty. Rich countries with high population densities have low rates of infant mortality.
•Increased chance of the emergence of new epidemics and pandemics]
•Starvation, malnutrition or poor diet with ill health and diet-deficiency diseases (e.g. rickets). Famine is aggravated by coupled with inflation in some regions and a resulting low level poverty. Rich countries with high population densities do not have famine .Poverty of capital formation. Poverty and inflation are aggravated by bad government and bad economic policies. Many countries with high population densities have eliminated absolute poverty and keep their inflation rates very low]
•Low life expectancy in countries with fastest growing populations
•Unhygienic living conditions for many based upon water resource depletion, discharge of raw sewage and solid waste disposal
•Elevated crime rate due to drug cartels and increased theft by people stealing resources to survive
•Conflict over scarce resources and crowding, leading to increased levels of warfare



Family Welfare
Introduction
Welfare of each citizen is the AIM of family welfare Department. It is tried to achieve mainly through saving the lives of mothers and children and improving their health status as well as checking the population growth
India launched the National Family Welfare Programme in 1951 with the objective of "reducing the birth rate to the extent necessary to stabilise the population at a level consistent with the requirement of the National economy. "The Family Welfare Programme in India is recognised as a priority area, and is being implemented as a 100% Centrally sponsored programme. As per Constitution of India, Family Planning is in the Concurrent list. The approach under the programme during the First and Second Five Year Plans was mainly "Clinical" under which facilities for provision of services were created. However, on the basis of data brought out by the 1961 census, clinical approach adopted in the first two plans was replaced by "Extension and Education Approach" which envisaged expansion of services facilities along with spread of message of small family norm.

Implementation of Family Welfare Programme

• Under the Guidance of Secretary & Commissioner (Family Welfare), Commissioner (Health) and Additional Director (Family Welfare) and through primary health care approach Family welfare department is striving to achieve complete welfare of the citizen by organizing and implementing RCH programme through out the state.
•The state Family Welfare department is also carrying out special schemes like Integrated Population Development Project, link couples, rapid referral services, moped loans, National Maternity Benefit Schemes etc. The department is actively working for polio eradication and Intensive Pulse Polio Campaign and surveillance for polio cases are being carried out.



Women & Child Welfare
•The Department of Women and Child Development was set up in the year 1985 as a part of the Ministry of Human Resource Development to give the much needed impetus to the holistic development of women and children. With effect from 30.01.2006, the Department has been upgraded to a Ministry under the independent charge of Smt. Renuka Chowdhury, Minister of State for Women and Child Development.

Mandate
•The broad mandate of the Ministry is to have holistic development of Women and Children. As a nodal Ministry for the advancement of women and children, the Ministry formulates plans, policies and programme; enacts/ amends legislation, guides and coordinates the efforts of both governmental and non-governmental organization working in the field of Women and Child Development. Besides, playing its nodal role, the Ministry implements certain innovative programme for women and children. These programme cover welfare and support services, training for employment and income generation, awareness generation and gender sensitization. These programme play a supplementary and complementary role to the other general developmental programme in the sectors of health, education, rural development etc. All these efforts are directed to ensure that women are empowered both economically and socially and thus become equal partners in national development along with men.

Policy Initiatives
•For the holistic development of the child, the Ministry has been implementing the world's largest and most unique and outreach programme of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) providing a package of services comprising supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check up and referral services, pre-school non-formal education.
• Ministry is also implementing Swayamsidha which is an integrated scheme for empowerment of women. There is effective coordination and monitoring of various sectoral programme. Most of the programmes of the Ministry are run through non-governmental organisations. Efforts are made to have more effective involvement of NGOs. The major policy initiatives undertaken by the Ministry in the recent past include universalisation of ICDS and Kishori Shakti Yojana, launching a nutrition programme for adolescent girls, establishment of the

Disaster Management

•Emergency management (or disaster management) is the discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It is a discipline that involves preparing for disaster before it happens, disaster response (e.g. emergency evacuation, quarantine, mass decontamination, etc.), as well as supporting, and rebuilding society after natural or human-made disasters have occurred.
•In general, any Emergency management is the continuous process by which all individuals, groups, and communities manage hazards in an effort to avoid or ameliorate the impact of disasters resulting from the hazards
•Disaster management is a multidisciplinary area in which a wide range of issues that range from forecasting, warning, evacuation, search, and rescue, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation are included.
It is also multi - sectoral as it involves administrators, scientists, planners, volunteers and communities.

Disaster Mitigation

Disaster Mitigation is any action or measure that either prevents that occurrence of a disaster or reduces the severity of its effects. The concept of Disaster Mitigation has been around for many years, even though the term may not be familiar to everyone. An example of Disaster Mitigation is the use of smoke alarms, sprinkler systems and fire escapes. Disaster Mitigation is an integral part of many data center operations, which routinely create backups of important data. Disaster Mitigation can reduce the effects of many hazards, not just fires

The disaster mitigation involves two categories and four phases each:

•Phases and professional activities - The process of emergency management involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery

•Phases and personal activities - The process of emergency management involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery

Phases and professional activities

Mitigation
Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from developing into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from the other phases because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk
Preparedness
In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop plans of action for when the disaster strikes. Common preparedness measures include the
•communication plans with easily understandable terminology and chain of command
•development and practice of multi-agency coordination and incident command
•proper maintenance and training of emergency services
•development and exercise of emergency population warning methods combined with emergency shelters and evacuation plans
•stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies and equipment
Response
• The response phase includes the mobilization of the necessary emergency services and first responders in the disaster area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency services, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews. They may be supported by a number of secondary emergency services, such as specialist rescue teams.
Recovery
•The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its previous state. It differs from the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that must be made after immediate needs are addressed. Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the repair of other essential infrastructure

Phases and personal activities
Mitigation
•Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoiding unnecessary risks. This includes an assessment of possible risks to personal/family health and to personal property- example of mitigation would be to avoid buying property that is exposed to hazards, e.g. in a flood plain, in areas of subsidence or landslides
Preparedness
•Preparedness measures can take many forms including the construction of shelters, installation of warning devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g. power, water, sewage), and rehearsing evacuation plans.
Response
•The response phase of an emergency may commence with search and rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affected population. This assistance may be provided by national or international agencies and organisations
•The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has subsided. During reconstruction it is recommended to consider the location or construction material of the property.
The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war, famine and severe epidemics and may last a year or more. Then recovery will take place inside the home. Planners for these events usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage and preparation equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life.

Note •ELEMENTS OF MITIGATING STEP WILL REMAIN SAME FOR ALL THE DISASTERS-(FLOOD,CYCLONE,EARTHQUAKE,ETC )

(WITH ABOVE MENTIONED MITIGATING STEPS MENTION FOLLOWING AS PER REQUIREMENT OF THE QUESTION)

FLOODS

Floods can be caused by natural, ecological or anthropogenic factors, either individually or as a combined result.
Anthropogenic activities, such as deforestation and shifting cultivation, can also contribute to floods.


Some mitigation measures for floods
Structural measures:
1. Prevention of over-bank spilling by the construction of embankments and floodwalls.
2. Improvement of flow conditions in the channel and anti-erosion measures.
3. Improved drainage.
4. Reservoirs for impounding monsoon flows to be released in a regulated manner after the peak flood flow passes.

non-structural measures :
1.Flood forecasting and warning services.
2.Disaster relief, flood fighting and public health measures.
3.Flood insurance.
4.Maintaining wet lands.
5.Flood forecasting and warning services.

Protection measures from damage to building:
-To avoid residing on river banks and slopes on river sides and the sides of gorges.
-To build at least 250 meters away from the sea coast/ river banks.
-To build proper drainage system in all flood prone areas, so that the water can be drained off quickly to prevent accumulation.

Cyclones:
Cyclones pose a major threat to life and property in many parts of the world. Every year these sudden, violent cyclones bring widespread devastation to coastlines and islands lying in their erratic paths.

Protection measures for damage to building
-Site selection
-Platforms and orientation
-Foundations
-Wall openings
-Glass panelling
-Roof architecture

Syllabus of EM

Course Contents

Module I: Introduction
NGOs and Environmental Activism. Ecosystems: Types of Eco-Systems, Geosphere – Biosphere and Hydrosphere introduction. Major issues of Biodiversity, Biosphere reserves, National Parks and sanctuaries, Natural Resources.

Module II: Population Growth and its effects on the environment:
Problem of Population growth, poverty and environment, Population Explosion, Family Welfare Programme, Women & Child Welfare. Natural Disasters: Floods, earthquakes, cyclones, land slides, disaster management.

Module III: Resources: Renewable and non-renewable
Defining resources, classification of resources, soil and land degradation, economic development and resources use, natural resources accounting. Energy needs, renewable and nonrenewable energy resources, introduction to solar energy and its availability, wind power and its potential, hydropower as a clean source of energy, coal, oil, natural gas etc. introduction to biofuel.

Module IV:Pollution and Solid Waste
Water Pollution: Water resources of India, Hydrological Cycle, methods of water conservation and management, river action plan, ground and surface water pollution. Recycling and management of water and wastewater (domestic and industrial). Air Pollution: Air pollution and air pollutants, sources of air pollution and its effected on human health and vegetations. Green house effect, global warming and climate change. Ambient air quality standards, steps taken by Government to control air pollution. Noise pollution and its impacts on human health.
Solid Waste: Municipal Solid Waste Management, segregation, disposal methods, composting, land fill sites etc. Hazardous waste management, biomedical waste management.

Module V: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management System (EMS):
Introduction to EIA, its impact and case study, notification of MOEF, introduction to ISO 9000 and 14000 standards, environmental information system (EIS), role of information technology in environment. Forest / Dams: Forest degradation and management, hazard based environmental issues, Fast depletion of forest resources and their regeneration, environmental issues related to Mega Hydroelectric Projects / Dams, resettlement and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns.

Module VI: Indian and International efforts for environmental protection
Legal framework: Constitutional provisions, the Indian Penal Code, Role of Judiciary in Environmental Protection, Emergence of Environmental Issues, Stockholm Conference on Environment, 1972 and Agenda 21. International Protocols, WTO, Kyoto Protocol, International Agreement on Environmental Management.

Module 1 Eco-System

Geosphere
•The term Geosphere is often used to refer to the densest parts of Earth, which consist mostly of rock and regolith . In modern texts, geosphere refers to the solid parts of the Earth and is used along with atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere to describe the systems of the Earth. In that context, some geologists prefer "lithosphere" over geosphere, but these words can be used interchangeably .
•The term originally applies to the four nested geospheres identified solid (earth), liquid (water), gas (air), and plasma (fire). The nested geospheres then include the asthenosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the ionosphere or plasmasphere. The dense geosphere is also subdivided into the crust, mantle, and core. The outer core is unusual in that it is considered to be a liquid, yet it is a part of Earth's interior. The term Geosphere is often used to refer to the densest parts of Earth, which consist mostly of rock and regolith .


Biosphere
•The biosphere is the part of the Earth, including air, land, surface rocks, and water, within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. This biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning through a process of biogenesis or biopoesis, at least some 3.5 billion years ago.


HYDROSPHERE
•A hydrosphere (Greek hydro means "water") in physical geography describes the collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet
•The Earth's hydrosphere consists of water in all forms: the ocean (which is the bulk of the hydrosphere), other surface waters including inland seas, lakes, and rivers; rain; underground water; ice (as in glaciers and snow); and atmospheric water vapor (as in clouds). The average depth of the oceans is 3,794 m (12,447 ft), more than five times the average height of the continents
•The abundance of water on Earth is a unique feature that distinguishes our "Blue Planet" from others in the solar system. Approximately 70.8 percent (97% of it being sea water and 3% fresh water) of the Earth is covered by water and only 29.2 percent is landmass. Earth's solar orbit, volcanism, gravity, greenhouse effect, magnetic field and oxygen-rich atmosphere seem to combine to make Earth a water planet.
•The water cycle describes the methods of transport for water in the hydrosphere. This cycle includes water beneath the Earth's surface and in rocks (lithosphere), the water in plants and animals (biosphere), the water covering the surface of the planet in liquid and solid forms, and the water in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor, clouds, and precipitation. Movement of water within the hydrosphere is described by the hydrologic cycle. It is easy to see this motion in rivers and streams, but it is harder to tell that there is this motion in lakes and ponds.

Biodiversity
•Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem & biome
• Biodiversity found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species, the product of four billion years of evolution.
•The most straightforward definition of biodiversity is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization". A second definition holds that biodiversity is a measure of the relative diversity among organisms present in different ecosystems. "Diversity" in this definition includes diversity within a species and among species, and comparative diversity among ecosystems.
•The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined "biodiversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". This is, in fact, the closest thing to a single legally accepted definition of biodiversity, since it is the definition adopted by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is often used by ecologists as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region“ thus indicating the three levels at which biodiversity exisits:

•genetic diversity - diversity of genes within a species. There is a genetic variability among the populations and the individuals of the same species. (See also population genetics.)

•species diversity - diversity among species in an ecosystem. "Biodiversity hotspots" are excellent examples of species diversity.

•ecosystem diversity - diversity at a higher level of organization, the ecosystem. Diversity of habitat in a given unit area. To do with the variety of ecosystems on Earth.

Major issues of Biodiversity
•During the last century, erosion of biodiversity has been increasingly observed. Some studies show that about one eighth known plant species is threatened with extinction. Some estimates put the loss at up to 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory) and subject to discussion.The figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because only a small number of species come into being each year. Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates
•The factors that threaten biodiversity have been variously categorized. Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extensions. Edward Wilson prefers the acronym - HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population, and Overharvesting

Major Issues
•Destruction of habitats
• Exotic species
•Genetic pollution
•Hybridization and genetics

Conservation & Managementof Biodiversity
•The conservation of biological diversity has become a global concern. Although not everybody agrees on extent and significance of current extinction, most consider biodiversity essential. There are basically two main types of conservation options, in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation.
•In-situ conservation means "on-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators

• Ex-situ conservatiosn means literally, "off-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans. While ex-situ conservation comprises some of the oldest and best known conservation methods, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.


Biosphere Reserve
The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the 'Man & biosphere' (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971
The term ‘Biosphere Reserve' should denote an area:
•which is, set aside for the conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment;
•which is, to serve as sites for long term scientific research as well as education all over the world.
Biosphere Reserve Objectives
Each Biosphere Reserve is intended to fulfill three basic functions, which are complementary and mutually reinforcing:
•• A conservation function - to contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation;
•• A development function - to foster economic and human development which is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable;
•• A logistic function - to provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development (UNESCO, 2005 s


Protected area categories

•National Parks Conservation of species of a habitat with minimal or very low intensity of human activity. No human resides in the Park, other than a public servant on duty and permitted persons by the Chief Wild Life Warden .Its zone Core

• Sanctuaries Conservation of species and habitats by manipulative management. No human resides in the Sanctuary, other than a public servant on duty and permitted persons by the Chief Wild Life Warden. Its zone - Core, Buffer and Restoration

• Biosphere Reserves Conservation of the natural resources and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment therein. Both natural and human-influenced ecosystems; substantial human settlements (rural). Its zone - Core, Buffer, Restoration and Cultural


Wildlife Parks & Sanctuaries in India
The Indian wildlife heritage has a unique status worldwide. It has the second largest base of bio diversity in the world, with 441 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 80 National Parks, which have become destinations for visitors from all around the world. Accounts of man-eaters of Kumaon and other wildlife encountered by Jim Corbett, are fascinating and true, and just a glimpse of many other mysteries and delights of the Indian wildlife that is housed in the sanctuaries around the country. Another incredible feature of these amazing conservatories of exotic wildlife is that they are home to the largest number of tigers and one-horned rhinoceros in the world, as well as the almost extinct Asiatic Lion, and a large percentage of the total elephant population! Also, India's wildlife sanctuaries which cover about 90,000 sq km house more than 500 species of mammals, over 2000 species of birds, over 500 species of reptiles and amphibians and around 30000 species of insects.

MODULE 5 Deforestation

Deforestation
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land for use such as arable land, pasture, urban use, logged area, or wasteland. Generally, the removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. In many countries, massive deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography.
Causes of deforestation
There are many causes, ranging from slow forest degradation to sudden and catastrophic
• clear cutting,
• slash-and-burn,
• urban development
• acid rain, and
• wildfires.
Deforestation can be the result of the deliberate removal of forest cover for agriculture or urban development, or it can be a consequence of grazing animals, primarily for agriculture. In addition to the direct effects brought about by forest removal, indirect effects caused by edge effects and habitat fragmentation can greatly magnify the effects of deforestation.

Impact On Environment
Generally, the removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with :
•Reduced biodiversity.
•Changed climate and geography.
•Deforestation affects the amount of water in the soil and groundwater and the moisture in the atmosphere.
•Deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably
•Deforestation lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transport precipitation. Deforestation also contributes to decreased vapor transpiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels down wind from the deforested area .

Long-term gains can be obtained by managing forest lands sustainable to maintain both forest cover and provide a biodegradable renewable resource. Forests are also important stores of organic carbon, and forests can extract carbon dioxide and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability and probably relevant to the greenhouse effect. Forests are also valued for their aesthetic beauty and as a cultural resource and tourist attraction

Economic impact
•Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries almost 3 billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking. The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, often leads to loss of long-term income. Both West Africa and Southeast Asia have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually

Forest Regeneration
Forest regeneration is the act of renewing tree cover by establishing young trees naturally or artificially-generally, promptly after the previous stand or forest has been removed. The method, species, and density are chosen to meet the goal of the landowner. Forest regeneration includes practices such as changes in tree plant density through human-assisted natural regeneration, enrichment planting, reduced grazing of forested savannas, and changes in tree provenances/genetics or tree species. "Human-assisted natural regeneration" means establishment of a forest age class from natural seeding or sprouting after harvesting through selection cutting, shelter (or seed-tree) harvest, soil preparation, or restricting the size of a clear-cut stand to secure natural regeneration from surrounding trees. "Enrichment planting" means increasing the planting density (i.e., the numbers of plants per hectare) in an already growing forest stand.

Definition and Purposes
Technically the term “dam” relates to the barrier constructed across a stream, valley or similar natural depression for the purpose of impounding water, but popular usage includes the impounded water along with the barrier.
Apart from the obvious requirements of storage for community or stock water supply, the economic purposes served by impounding of water by dams are: land irrigation, generation of electricity by hydraulic power, amelioration of flooding by partial retention of flood waters, and improvement of natural waterway facilities for inland navigation.
Hydroelectricity is electricity produced by hydropower. It is a renewable source of energy, produces no waste, and does not produce carbon dioxide (CO2) which contributes to greenhouse gases. Hydroelectricity now supplies about 715,000 MW or 19% of world electricity (16% in 2003), accounting for over 63% of the total electricity from renewable in 2005.
Negative Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects
•The construction of large dams completely change the relationship of water and land, destroying the existing ecosystem balance which, in many cases, has taken thousands of years to create. Currently there are around 40,000 large dams which obstruct the world's rivers, completing changing their circulation systems: this is not going to occur without dire environmental impactsThroughout the past few years, the negative impacts of dams have become so well known that most countries have stopped building them altogether and are now forced to invest their money into fixing the problems created by existing dams

Greenhouse gas emissions

The reservoirs of power plants in tropical regions may produce substantial amounts of methane carbon di oxide. This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment, and forming methane, a very potent greenhouse gases.

Soil Erosion
One of the first problems with dams is the erosion of land. Dams hold back the sediment load normally found in a river flow, depriving the downstream of this. In order to make up for the sediments, the downstream water erodes its channels and banks. This lowering of the riverbed threatens vegetation and river wildlife. One of the reasons dams are built is to prevent flooding. However, most ecosystems which experience flooding are adapted to this and many animal species depend on the floods for various lifecycle stages, such as reproduction and hatching. Annual floods also deposit nutrients and replenish wetlands.

Species Extinction
As fisheries become an increasingly important source of food supply, more attention is being paid to the harmful effects of dams on many fish and marine mammal populations. The vast majority of large dams do not include proper bypass systems for these animals, interfering with their lifecycles and sometimes even forcing species to extinction.
Changes to Earth's RotationNasa geophysicist have found evidence that large dams cause changes to the earth's rotation, because of the shift of water weight from oceans to reservoirs. Because of the number of dams which have been built, the Earth's daily rotation has apparently sped up by eight-millionths of a second since the 1950s. Chao said it is the first time human activity has been shown to have a measurable effect on the Earth's

Animal diseases
Animals are subject to a similar range of water related diseases as humans. They may also act as reservoirs for human water-based infections and infections with water-related insect vectors. The promotion of animal husbandry as a secondary, income generating activity for farmers in newly irrigated areas should be carefully evaluated for its possible environmental and health risks.

Aquatic weeds
The main problems of aquatic weeds are that they reduce the storage and conveyance capacity of reservoirs, canals and drains and increase water loss through evapotranspiration. Most irrigation schemes suffer infestations of exotic species. They are difficult and expensive to control, though the use of linings, shade and intermittent drying out can compliment traditional techniques of mechanical removal, careful herbicide application and the introduction of weed eating fish and insects.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of people( its problems and concerns.)
•Towns and forests located in areas that will be inundated will have to be demolished and removed in order to increase navigability on the river. The loss of forests and agricultural lands will lead to erosion and the build up of sediment at the base of the river and reservoir. This could lead to increased flooding upstream. Sediments and silt contain valuable nutrients necessary to agricultural production. The blocking of sediments behind the dam means that these nutrients may not reach fertile farmland downstream of the dam. This could reduce the fertility of the land.
•The destruction of the villages also leads to problems of pollution. The Yangtze River is already polluted from the shipping of coal, acid rain, and its central location in Chinese industrial activity. Pollutants from towns and waste dumps that will be inundated will add to this pollution. Some funds were set up to aid in cleaning the area for the reservoir, but only the future will show whether a sufficient job was done. Water moves slower in the reservoir and some are concerned that the pollution will sit and worsen water quality of the river.

Population change
Irrigation projects tend to encourage population densities to increase either because they are part of a resettlement project or because the increased prosperity of the area attracts incomers. Major changes should be anticipated and provided for at the project planning stage through, for example, sufficient infrastructure provision. Impacts resulting from changes to the demographic/ethnic composition should also be considered. Training is an important component if new skills are expected.

Income and amenity
The most common socio-economic problems reducing the income generating capacity of irrigation schemes are:
• the social organization of irrigation operation and maintenance (O&M): who will carry out the work (both operation and maintenance); when will irrigation take place (rotation schedules); Poor O&M contributes significantly to long-term salinity and water-logging problems and needs to be adequately planned at the design stage.
• reduced farming flexibility. Irrigation may only be viable with high-value crops thus reducing activities such as grazing animals, operating woodlots etc.
• insufficient external supports such as markets, agro-chemical inputs, extension and credit facilities

Human migration
•Human migration (outside of the nomadic way of life) and displacement are commensurate with a breakdown in community infrastructure which results in a degree of social unrest and may contribute to malnutrition and an increased incidence of disease. Large, new irrigation schemes attract temporary populations both during construction and during peak periods of agricultural labour demands and provision for their accommodation needs to be anticipated. The problems of displacement during project construction or rehabilitation can usually be solved by providing short-term support.

Resettlement
•Often the most significant social issue arising is resettlement of people displaced by the flooding of land and homes or the construction of canals or other works. This can be particularly disruptive to communities and, in the past, insensitive project development has caused unnecessary problems by a lack of consultation at the planning stage and inadequate compensation of the affected population. Technical ministries should seek expert assistance at an early stage. Community re-establishment often includes, for example, pilot farms, extension services and credit schemes.

MODULE 5 Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF)

•The Ministry of Environment & Forests is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central Government, for the planning, promotion, co-ordination and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes. MoEF oversees all environmental matters in the country and is a permanent member of the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council.

•The Ministry also plays a pivotal role as participant of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The principal activities undertaken by Ministry of Environment & Forests consist of conservation of forests and wildlife, prevention & control of pollution, forestation & regeneration of degraded areas and protection of environment, in the frame work of legislations.

•The main tools utilized for this include surveys, impact assessment, control of pollution, regeneration programmes, support to organizations, research to solve solutions and training to augment the requisite manpower, collection and dissemination of environmental information and creation of environmental awareness among all sectors of the country's population


Functions of MoEF

•Management of environment and ecology.
•Matters relating to environment pollution control.
•Conservation of forests and development of forest resources (government and private), forest inventory, grading and quality control of forest products.
•Forestation and regeneration of forest extraction of forest produce.
•Plantation of exotic cinchona and rubber.
•Botanical gardens and botanical surveys.
•Tree plantation.
•Planning cell is responsible for preparation of schemes and coordination in respect of forest.
•Research and training in forestry.
•Mechanized forestry operations.
•Protection of wild birds and animals and establishment of sanctuaries.
•Matters relating to marketing of forest produce.
•Liaison with international organizations and matters relating to treaties and agreements with other countries and world bodies relating to subjects allotted to this Ministry.

Organisational Structure OF MoEF

It covers a number of Divisions, Directorates, Boards, Subordinate Offices, Autonomous Institutions & public sector undertakings.
Divisions of MoEF:
•Animal welfare.
•Conservation and survey.
•Control of pollution.
•Environment Education.
•Environment Research.
•Environmental Impact Assessment.
Subordinate offices:
•Botanical survey of India, Kolkata.
•Directorate of Forest Education, Dehradun.
•National Zoological Park, New Delhi.
•National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi.


Autonomous Institutions:
•Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi.
•Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi.
•GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora.
•Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun.

MODULE 5 Environmental Impact Assessment

•In 1970, the United states of America became the first country to make EIA a legal requirement for major development projects .Since then the countries throughout the world are making laws suiting their own constitution ,economics ,social values etc.

What is EIA?
The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals to the environment and human beings.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider environmental impacts before deciding whether to proceed with new projects. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a tool that seeks to ensure sustainable development through the evaluation of those impacts arising from a major activity (policy, plan, program, or project) that are likely to have significant environmental effects. It is anticipatory, participatory, and systematic in nature and relies on multidisciplinary input


Aims of EIA

•Predict environmental impact of projects;
•Find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts;
•Shape the projects to suit local environment;
•Present the predictions and options to the decision-makers.


EIA in INDIA

•In India Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been formally introduced and was made mandatory in 1994 under the environmental protection Act of 1986.The notification specifies 30 categories of projects with potential to degrade environment, including polluting industries.


•On 10 April 1997 the amendment in the EIA notification was made by introducing Environmental Public Hearing (EPH) in Environmental Clearance process. Before issuing NOC the State Pollution Control Board has to organize public hearing for the proposed project.

The EPH Committee hears the objection/suggestion regarding the project from public and hand over them to Ministry of Forest & Environment. Certain clauses are added to the EC of the project based on the objection/suggestion discussed in public hearing. It is an ideal system of public participation in environmental clearance process.


Environment Impact Assessment Notification Under MoEF

The Environment Impact Assessment Notification was issued in 1997 to put in place a mechanism by which certain kinds of development and industrial processes/activities would need environmental clearance from the MoEF. These projects listed in Schedule 1 of the Notification included mining, river valley projects, ports, harbours and airports, exploration of oil/gas, distilleries, urban construction, and so on. The Notification also makes it mandatory for a process of public hearing that would bring the project proposer and the affected people face to face, and allow for objections to be raised and clarifications sought.


List of Projects

•The entire list of projects in the schedule is required to go through the environmental clearance process . The draft categorizes these projects into A, B and A/B.
• Projects in Category A would require a clearance from the Centre, those in B from the State governments and that in A/B will be recategorized A or B based on a screening process by an Expert Appraisal Committee constituted by the Centre.

Limitations of EIA in India


1.Poor governance.
2.Undue delays.
3.Rapid economic reforms.
4.Lack of awareness (public hearing).
5.Favors to small-scale units.
6.Poor quality EIA reports.


Environmental management system (EMS)
ISO 9000
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a world wide federation of national standards bodies, having its headquarter at Geneva in Switzerland. The objective of ISO is to promote the development of standardization with a view to facilitating international exchange of goods and services and to develop cooperation in the sphere of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity.
India is the founding member of ISO and participating through BIS as active member.


What is ISO 9000
ISO 9000 is a series of 5 international standards for ‘ Quality Management and Quality Assurance Systems’ which can be adopted by all types of organisations producing goods, services or softwares.
It defines the basic disciplines and specifies the procedures and criteria to ensure that the product or service of the organisation consistently meets the customer’s requirements.
The series consists of ISO 9000, 9001, 9002, 9003, 9004.

Salient Features

• It is obligatory to identify non- conformities.
• Systematic prevention of non- conformities.
• Requires a formally documented procedure for each and every activity.
• Requires faithful implementation of procedures and their revision.
• Confines to standard formulation, implementation is left to individual nations.

Benefits of ISO 900

• Customer satisfaction.
• Recognition.
• Legal aspects.
• Confidence creation.
• Consistency in quality.
• Documented.

ISO 14000

The ISO 14000 family addresses "environmental management". This means what the organization does to:

• Minimize harmful effects on the environment caused by its activities
• To achieve continual improvement of its environmental performance.
  ISO 14000 is derived from ISO quality standards 9000 but is broader in scope because environmental issues are larger issues affecting the nation’s and world’s resources and living conditions. It requires organisations to be concerned with everything from raw materials to end products. ISO 14000 enables the organisation’s EMS to :
  •Formulate and define policy and objectives in this regard.
  •Formulate a plan to implement the policy and objective.
  •Develop support system to achieve the implementation of policy.
  •Monitor and evaluate environmental performance.
  •Review the EMS for continued improvement.
  •ISO 14000 is a series of international standards on environmental management. It provides a framework for the development of an environmental management system and the supporting audit programme.
  •The main thrust for its development came as a result of the Rio Summit on the Environment held in 1992.

EMSEnvironmental management system means that part of the overall management system, which includes the organisational structure, responsibilities, practices and resources for determining and implementing the environmental policy. It is a system that enables any organisation irrespective of its size, type & setting tomanage environmental impacts arising out of its
activities, product & services

1.Ensures compliance to regulations

2.Brings continual improvements

3.Demonstrate high environmental performance to others by conforming to policy, objectives & targets

Role Of Information Technology in Environment

Information technology is a powerful tool for meeting environmental objectives and promoting sustainable development.It is used to facilitate comunication, development, analysis and practice of environmental objectives etc. The computer age has turned the world around due to the incredible rapidity with which IT spreads knowledge.

Environmental Management and Technology.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) :

• It is a tool to map landuse patterns by studying digitized toposheets .
• GIS can be used for design and development of Environmental projects:
• Environmental Auditing.
• Environmental Impact Assessment.
• Detailed Project Reports.
• Waste Water Treatment Systems.
• Environmental Planning and Infrastructure Master Plans.

Use of GIS for Architecture and Engineering:

•Landscape and Environmental Planning.
•Disaster Assessment & Management System.
•Human Settlements Planning & Development.

The internet with its thousands of websites has made it very simple to get the appropriate environmental information for any study or environmental management planning. It is a powerful tool to increase public awareness about environmental issues.

MODULE 6 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

ØVIENNA CONVENTION (1985) : outlines states' responsibilities for protecting human health and the environment against the adverse effects of ozone depletion, established the framework under which the Montreal Protocol was negotiated.

ØMONTREAL PROTOCOL (1987): is a landmark international agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992. The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds that deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by 2000 (2005 for methyl chloroform).

ØBASEL CONVENTION (1989):The Basel Convention on the( Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal) is an international treaty in which 170 parties participated, was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries .The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation.

ØRIO DECLARATION (1992):The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14June1992,reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June1972,and seeking to build up it, with the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States.

ØCONVENTIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE & ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: (1994):
The world community at Rio Conference showed unanimity to prevent global climate change and eradication of biologically diverse species. This conventions were signed by more than 150 nations. The convention on climate change requires the States to take steps to reduce their emissions of gases contributing to global warming. The other convention on biodiversity requires the States to take steps for protection of the world’s diverse plant and animal species.

ØGLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY (1992): was established as a cooperative venture of the World Bank, UNEP and UNDP,an independent financial organization, that provides grants to developing countries for projects that benefit the global environment . GEF grants support projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants. It was set up during the 1992 Earth Summit with 27 members initially. At the Fourth GEF Assembly in 2006, an additional $3.13 billion was committed

Stockholm Conference 1972

DECLARATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT (1972)

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972, Having considered the need for a common outlook and for common principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment

SOME PRINCIPLES OF THE CONFERENCE

•The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world; it is the urgent desire of the peoples of the whole world and the duty of all Governments.

• Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations.

•The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate. The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable resources must be maintained and, wherever practicable, restored or improved.

•Economic and social development is essential for ensuring a favorable living and working environment for man and for creating conditions on earth that are necessary for the improvement of the quality of life.

• In the developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused by under-development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation. Therefore, the developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing in mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment. For the same purpose, the industrialized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap themselves and the developing countries. In the industrialized countries, environmental problems are generally related to industrialization and technological development.

•The important outcome of the meet was realization that environmental problems are essentially by-products linked to intense industrialization and the use of the technology by society and , therefore, a scientific technical approach alone would be able to solve them. Following this conference The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) was set up

MODULE 6 Indian Penal Code and Environment Protection

Indian Penal Code 1860, makes various acts affecting environment as offences. IPC can be used to prevent pollution of atmosphere. Thus no trade, business or manufacturing process can be carried out in residential area which produces noxious and offensive smell.

Chapter XIV of IPC containing Sections 268 to 290 deals with offences affecting the public health, safety, convenience, decency and morals. Its object is to safeguard the public health, safety and convenience by causing those acts punishable which make environment polluted or threaten the life of the people.

Section 268 & 290 of IPC defines public nuisance and provides for punishment of fine upto Rs. 200 for public nuisance respectively. Under these provisions any act or omissions of a person which caused injury to another by polluting the environment can be controlled.
Public Nuisance: a person is guilty of public nuisance who does any act or is guilty of an illegal omission which causes any common injury, danger to the people in general who dwell or occupy the property in the vicinity or cause injury, danger , obstruction to persons who use any public right.


Section 269 & 270 of IPC provides, whoever negligently or malignantly does any act which spreads the infection of disease dangerous to life, can be controlled by punishing the person responsible for such act with imprisonment upto six months to six years or with fine or both respectively.

Section 277 provides, whoever voluntarily fouls the water of any public spring or reservoir, so as to render it less fit for the purpose for which it is ordinarily used, shall be punished with imprisonment for three months or with fine of five hundred rupees or with both.

Section 278 provides, whoever voluntarily vitiates the atmosphere in any place so as to make it noxious to the health of persons dwelling or carrying on business in the neighbourhood or passing along the public way, shall be punished with fine upto Rs.500.

Section 284 provides, whoever does, with any poisonous substance, any act in a manner so rash or negligent as to endanger human life, or to be likely to cause hurt or injury to any person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of 6 months or with fine upto Rs.1000 or with both.

Section 285 provides, whoever does, with the fire or any combustible matter, any act rashly or negligently as to endanger human life, to be likely to cause or injury to any other person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of 6 months, or with fine upto Rs.10000 or with both.

Section 286 provides, whoever does, with any explosive substance, any act rashly or negligently as to endanger human life, to be likely to cause or injury to any other person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of 6 months, or with fine upto Rs.10000 or with both.

Under sections 426,430,432 of IPC general pollution caused by mischief can be controlled and the same is punishable.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

PREAMBLE
The preamble of the Constitution of India provides that our country is based on “Socialistic” pattern of society. The basic aim of socialism is to provide “ decent standard of life to all”, which is possible only in pollution free environment. Pollution is a social problem and the State is required to pay more attention to it.

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Article 47 of the Constitution is one of the Directive principles of the State policy and it provides that the State shall regard raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties. The improvement of public health includes the protection and improvement of environment without which public health cannot be assured.
The Environmental protection and improvement were explicitly incorporated into the Constitution of India by the 42 Amendment Act(1976), which added Article 48A to the Directive principles of State policy and declares that,
“ the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life for the country.”


FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

Article 51A(g) on “Fundamental Duties” imposed a similar responsibility on every citizen to protect and improve environment. It states, “It should be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.”
Thus, Indian Constitution became one of the rare constitutions of the world where specific provisions were incorporated in putting obligations on the “State” as well as “citizens” to “protect and improve” the environment.
Constitutional Provisions provides for local management of resources and are implemented through environmental protection laws of the country.

Case studies for Role of Judiciary
Constitutional Provisions
•KINKRI DEVI V. STATE :
A public interest litigation was filed in which it was alleged that the unscientific and uncontrolled quarrying of the limestone has caused damage to the Shivalik hills and was imposing danger to the ecology, environment and inhabitants of the area.
The H.P high court relying on previous judgement provided that if a just balance is not struck between development and environment by proper tapping of resources, there will be violation of Articles 14, 21,48A and 51 A(g) of the constitution. The court observed that natural resources have got to be tapped for the purpose of social development but the tapping has to be done with care so that ecology and environment may not be effected . The resources re permanent asset of mankind and are not intended to be exhausted in one generation. Thus the court issued a direction to the state government to set up a committee to examine the issue of proper granting of mining lease keeping in view the protection of environment.


AMBUGA PETROCHEMICALS V. A.. P. POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD.
The effluent treatment plant of the said industry was not in operation thereby causing water pollution resulting in danger of public life. The State Pollution control Board ordered the industry to close.
ØHereunder case was filed by Ambuga Petrochemicals as they considered the order as in-appropriate and severe.
ØIt was held by the court that the order of the board was neither dis-appropriate nor severe.

M.C MEHTA V. UNION OF INDIA (TAJ MAHAL CASE)
A Public Interest Litigation was filed alleging that due to environmental pollution there is degradation of Taj Mahal. According to the opinion of the expert committees, the use of coal by industries situated within the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ) were emitting pollution and causing damage to the Taj as also to the people living in the area.
The court held that Taj apart , apart from being a cultural heritage is also an industry. The court followed the path of sustainable development and applied “ precautionary principle”.
Directions issued by the court :
All industries operating in TTZ must use natural gas as a substitute for coal, as an industrial fuel. The industries which are not in a position to use natural gas, must stop functioning in TTZ and they may relocate themselves in new industrial areas and the incentives were to be given for relocation.

Emergence of Environmental issues, Agenda 21 ,Kyoto Protocol,CTE

•It was the Industrial Revolution that gave rise to modern environmental pollution as it is generally understood today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste .Environmentalism grew out of the amenity movement, which was a reaction to industrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution.



•In the 20th century environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly the American Bison. The endangerment of the American Bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. Notably in 1916 the National Park Service was founded by President Woodrow Wilson.


•In the 1970s the Chipko movement was formed in India; influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential.


•By the mid 1970s many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The Back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975.


•On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a UN conference in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and the follow-up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).




Agenda 21

Development of Agenda 21

•It is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans impact on the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st century

•The full text of Agenda 21 was revealed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), held in Rio de Janeiro on June 14th where 179 governments voted to adopt the programme. The final text was the result of drafting, consultation and negotiation, beginning in 1989 and culminating at the two-week conference


Structure and Contents- Agenda 21There are 40 chapters in Agenda 21, divided into four sections. All told the document was over 900 pages:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions
•including combating poverty, changing consumption patterns, population and demographic dynamics, promoting health, promoting sustainable settlement patterns and integrating environment and development into decision-making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development
•including atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), and control of pollution.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
•including the roles of children and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and workers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation
•including science, technology transfer, education, international institutions and mechanisms and financial mechanisms.

Agenda 21: Preamble
•Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at preparing the world for the challenges of the next century. It reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this context, the United Nations system has a key role to play. Other international, regional and sub regional organizations are also called upon to contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the active involvement of the non-governmental organizations and other groups should also be encouraged.
• The developmental and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 will require a substantial flow of new and additional financial resources to developing countries, in order to cover the incremental costs for the actions they have to undertake to deal with global environmental problems and to accelerate sustainable development. Financial resources are also required for strengthening the capacity of international institutions for the implementation of Agenda 21. An indicative order-of-magnitude assessment of costs is included in each of the programme areas. This assessment will need to be examined and refined by the relevant implementing agencies and organizations.

Kyoto Protocol
What is Kyoto Protocol?
•The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases that cause climate change. It was agreed on 11 December 1997 at the 3rd Conference of the Parties to the treaty when they met in Kyoto, and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
•It is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

Aim of Kyoto Protocol

Aim to reduce collective emission of green house gases and prevent global warming
•The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement under which industrialized countries will aim to reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990 (but note that, compared to the emissions levels that would be expected by 2010 without the Protocol, this limitation represents a 29% cut). The goal is to lower overall emissions of six greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons - averaged over the period of 2008-2012. National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.

•The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment countries) to invest in projects that reduce emissions in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. The most important factor of a carbon project is that it establishes that it would not have occurred without the additional incentive provided by emission reductions credits.

•Joint implementation (JI) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment (so-called Annex 1 countries) to invest in emission reducing projects in another industrialised country as an alternative to emission reductions in their own countries. Countries with relatively high costs for emission reductions can reduce the costs of complying with their Kyoto targets by using credits from JI projects, as costs of emission reductions are significantly lower in some countries.



WTO & ENVIROMENT PROTECTION

•The WTO has no specific agreement dealing with the environment. However, the WTO agreements confirm governments’ right to protect the environment, provided certain conditions are met, and a number of them include provisions dealing with environmental concerns. The objectives of sustainable development and environmental protection are important enough to be stated in the preamble to the Agreement Establishing the WTO.
• The standing forum dedicated to dialogue between governments on the impact of trade policies on the environment, and of environment policies on trade.
•Under the Doha Development Agenda, the regular committee is also looking at the effects of environmental measures on market access, the intellectual property agreement and biodiversity, and labeling for environmental purposes
•Moreover, the institutional machinery working under WTO for investigating the trade and environment interface, and making positive suggestions towards the objective of sustainable development, is the committee on Trade and Environment (CTE).


The Committee On Trade and Environment
•The 1994 Ministerial Decision on Trade and Environment created the WTO’s Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE), which is open to the entire WTO membership, with some international organizations as observers. The committee’s mandate is broad, and it has contributed to identifying and understanding the relationship between trade and the environment in order to promote sustainable development
•CTE`s work programme
The work programme covers a range of relevant issues, from trade and the environment in general, liberalization and trade barriers, and taxes, to individual sectors such as services and intellectual property, and relations with environmental organizations.

•The Doha mandateThe 2001 Doha Declaration has a section dealing with the committee’s regular work. The focus is on effects of environmental measures on market access, the relevant provisions of the intellectual property agreement, labeling requirements for environmental purposes, technical assistance, sharing expertise for national environmental reviews and environmental aspects of the Doha negotiations.

Issues Sorted By CTE
Sustainable development
Trade is a powerful ally of sustainable development. The WTO’s founding agreement recognizes sustainable development as a central principle, and it is an objective running through all subjects in current Doha negotiations The purpose of trade liberalization and the WTO’s key principle of non-discrimination is a more efficient allocation of resources, which should be positive for the environment
Environmental requirements and market access
The effect of environmental measures on market access is particularly important to the work of the Trade and Environment Committee because it holds the key to ensure that sound trade and environmental policies work together.So, a balance is needed, between safeguarding market access and protecting the environment. WTO member governments agree that they have to examine how environmental measures could be designed
Labeling
Labeling is one of the subjects assigned to the Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE). It is part of an item (3b) on the committee’s work programme in which the committee is assigned to consider the relationship between the provisions of the WTO’s agreements and the requirements governments make for products in order to protect the environment The use of eco-labels (i.e. labeling products according to environmental criteria) by governments, industry and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is increasing

Water Pollution

Water Resources

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. 88.7% of water on the Earth is salt water, and over two thirds of fresh water is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps, leaving only 0.9% available for human use

Sources of Fresh Water
•Surface Water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, and sub-surface seepage.

•Sub-Surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface water and deep sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").

Water Stress

According to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development - It applies to situations where there is not enough water for all uses, whether agricultural, industrial or domesticPopulation growth
Causes of Water Stress

Population Growth
Increased affluence.

Expansion of business activity.
Rapid urbanization
Climate change
Depletion of aquifers

Water Conservation and Management

Water conservation refers to reducing use of fresh water, through technological or social methods. Water conservation is an integral part of water management. The goals of water conservation efforts include:
•Sustainability - To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.
•Energy conservation - Water pumping, delivery, and wastewater treatment facilities consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world (for example, California ) over 15% of total electricity consumption is devoted to water management.
•Habitat conservation - Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, as well as reducing the need to build new dams and other water diversion infrastructure.

Solutions for Water Conservation

•Social Awareness
•Technical Solutions
•Reclaimed water, sometimes called recycled water, is former wastewater (sewage) that has been treated and purified for reuse, rather than discharged into a body of water. E.g Rain water harvesting
•Watershed management
• Catchment management

Water Pollution

•Water pollution is a large set of adverse effects upon water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater caused by human activities.
•Surface water pollution

Although natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water, water is only called polluted when it is not able to be used for what one wants it to be used for.

•Ground water pollution
This pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography

Contaminants

•Contaminants are of two types - Organic and inorganic
•Some inorganic water pollutants include:
•Heavy metals including acid mine drainage
•Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
•Pre-production industrial raw resin pellets, an industrial pollutant
•Chemical waste as industrial by products
•Fertilizers, in runoff from agriculture including nitrates and phosphates
•Silt in surface runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites


Some organic water pollutants are:
•Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalide and other chemicals
•Bacteria, often is from sewage or livestock operations
•Food processing waste, including pathogens
•Tree and brush debris from logging operations
•VOCs (volatile organic compounds), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage
•DNAPLs (dense non-aqueous phase liquids), such as chlorinated solvents, which may fall at the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are more dense
•Petroleum Hydrocarbons including fuels (gasoline, diesel, jet fuels, and fuel oils) and lubricants (motor oil) from oil field operations, refineries, pipelines, retail service station's underground storage tanks, and transfer operations. Note: VOCs include gasoline-range hydrocarbons.

•Detergents

Action Plan for Rivers: National River Conservation Plan (NRCP)

In 1995 this plan was first launched. Under this all the rivers in India were taken up for clean up operations. This plan covers 18 rivers in 10 states including 46 towns .
Those stretches of rivers that are badly polluted were included in the NRCP. NRCP, more than being a river cleaning programme, is a long-term plan that would eventually lead to conservation of rivers. The project is entirely funded by the Central Government.
Objective : NRCP essentially addresses pollution load from sewer systems of town and cities and works towards intercepting and diverting sewage, setting up STPs, electric crematoria, low-cost sanitation, river front development, afforestation and solid waste management.
Various River Action Plans:

•Ganga action Plan
•Yamuna Action Plan
•Gomti Action Plan
•Damodar Action Plan

Noise Pollution

Noise is undesirable sound. Noise is a disturbance to the human environment that will become a major threat to the quality of human lives. In the past thirty years, noise in all areas, especially in urban areas, have been increasing rapidly. It comes from several sources such as traffic operations, industrial equipments, construction activities, aircrafts etc. It can be continuous as in the case of electric fan, intermittent as in the case of mechanical driller or impulsive as in the case of hammering.

Noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature. This unwanted sound can damage physiological and psychological health. Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, hearing loss, and other harmful effects. Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to health problems, can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression and at times panic attacks.


Harmful Effects:
On Human Being, Animal and Property: Noise has always been with the human civilization but it was never so obvious, so intense, so varied & so pervasive as it is seen in the last of this century. Noise pollution makes men more irritable. The effect of noise pollution is multifaceted & inter related. The effects of Noise Pollution on Human Being, Animal and property are as follows:
•I It decreases the efficiency of a man:- Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency there are number of experiments which print out the fact that human efficiency increases with noise reduction. A study by Sinha & Sinha in India suggested that reducing industrial booths could improve the quality of their work. Thus human efficiency is related with noise.

•II Lack of concentration:- For better quality of work there should be concentration , Noise causes lack of concentration. In big cities , mostly all the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or the loud speakers of different types of horns divert the attention of the people working in offices.

•III Fatigue:- Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they have to give their more time for completing the work and they feel tiring

•IV Abortion is caused: - There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the pregnancy. Unpleasant sounds make a lady of irriative nature. Sudden Noise causes abortion in females.

•V It causes Blood Pressure: - Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It attacks on the person’s peace of mind. The noises are recognized as major contributing factors in accelerating the already existing tensions of modern living. These tensions result in certain disease like blood pressure or mental illness etc.

•VI Temporary of permanent Deafness:- The effect of nose on audition is well recognized. Mechanics , locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc. All have their hearing . Impairment as a result of noise at the place of work. Physictist, physicians & psychologists are of the view that continued exposure to noise level above. 80 to 100 db is unsafe, Loud noise causes temporary or permanent deafness.

•VII EFFECT ON VEGETATION Poor quality of Crops:- Now is well known to all that plants are similar to human being. They are also as sensitive as man. There should be cool & peaceful environment for their better growth. Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops in a pleasant atmosphere.

•VIII EFFECT ON ANIMAL:- Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animal. Animal looses the control of its mind. They become dangerous.

•IX EFFECT ON PROPERTY:- Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments. It creates waves which struck the walls and put the building in danger condition. It weakens the edifice of buildings


NOISE CONTROL (REMEDIES)

The solution the noise pollution may include one or combination of the following measures :

• Source Control : include source modification such as design changes, limiting the operational timings.
  
• Transmission Path Intermission : includes sound insulating enclosures, provision of noise absorbing materials.
  
• Receptor Control : includes provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs while operating noisy machinery.
  

Legal Control:-

• Constitution of India Right to Life:- Article 21 of the Constitution guarantees life and personal liberty to all persons. It is well settled by repeated pronouncements of the Supreme Court that right to life enshrined in Article 21 is not of mere survival or existence. It guarantees a right of persons to life with human dignity. Any one who wishes to live in peace, comfort and quiet within his house has a right to prevent the noise as pollutant reaching him.
  
• Right to Information:- Every one has the right to information know about the norms and conditions on which Govt. permit the industry which effect the environment.
  
• Right to Religion and Noise:- Right to religion does not include right to perform religious activities on loud speaker and electronic goods which produce high velocity of noise.
  
• Directive Principal of State Policy:- The state has the object to make the enviorment pollution free.
  
• Fundamental Duties:- every citizen of the country has the fundamental duty to clean the environment.
  
  Rules/Regulation
  Court Orders
  –Bombay High Court Order : Oct 5, 2006: By Justice Gokhale and Justice Devadhar - Regarding problem arising from the use of loudspeakers and the instruments causing noise pollution
  
  –Calcutta High Court Judgement - April 1996 - Calcutta High Court and Karnataka High Court has taken a very serious view of sound pollution due to
  
  –News Article: Oct 6, 2006: TOI, Mumbai: No bursting crackers after 10 pm - Bursting of sound-emitting firecrackers not permitted between 10 pm and 6 am during Diwali
  
  In order to control the noise pollution caused from various sources , the Central Government has framed certain rules known as ‘ The Noise Pollution ( Regulation and Control) Rules,2000.’ The rules provide for the ambient air quality standard in respect of noise for different areas. An area comprising 100 meters around hospitals, educational institutions and courts has been declared as silence area or zone. A loud speaker or public address shall not be used at night between 10.00 pm to 6.00 pm except in closed premises.
  

Air Pollution

AIR POLLUTION

Definition
Air pollution may be defined as the presence in the air (outdoor atmosphere) of one or more contaminants or combinations thereof in such quantities and of such durations as may be or tend to be injurious to human, animal or plant life, or property, or which unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property or conduct of business.
Air pollution only occurs outdoors.The atmosphere is composed of 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, 1% carbondioxide, remainder consist of water vapor, trace amount of several other gases such as hydrogen, neon etc.

Air Pollutant
It is a substance or effect dwelling temporarily or permanently in the air , which adversely alters the environment by interfering with the health, the comfort, or the food chain, or by interfering with the property values of people.
A pollutant can be solid , liquid or gas .
It may originate from a natural or human source (or both).
However, it is widely accepted that even a small change can have a significant adverse effect on the climate, ecosystem and species on the planet.
It may originate from both natural and human sources .
Natural sources include dust, forest fires, volcanic eruptions etc.
Human sources include emissions from vehicles, industries etc.

Types of Pollutants

Primary pollutants : are those which are emitted directly into the troposphere from both natural and human activities. There are five primary pollutants – carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, suspended and particulate matter.

Secondary pollutants : when some of the primary pollutants may react with one another or with the basic components of air to form new pollutants eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc.

Pollutant -Sources -Effects
Carbon Monoxide (CO) -Cigarette smoking, motor vehicle exhaust-Reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood ,triggers heart attack, causes collapse, coma etc.

Nitrogen Dioxide -Burning of fossil fuel, power & industrial plants. -Lung irritation, aggravates asthma, bronchitis etc.

Sulfur Dioxide -Coal burning in power plants & industrial processes-Breathing problems, bronchitis, reduces visibility etc.

Ozone -Chemical reaction with VOCs by cars & industries.-Heart disease, eyes, nose & throat irritation, cough etc.
Suspended Particulate Matter - Burning coal in power & industrial plants, diesel in vehicles, agriculture, construction. -Nose & throat irritation, lung damage, cancer, shortens life, asthma.

Lead - Metal refineries, storage batteries, lead manufacture. -Accumulates in the body, brain & other nervous system damage, mental retardation.

Effect on Vegetation
Chronic exposure of leaves to air pollution can break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and leads to damage from diseases, drought, reduces nutrient uptake and cause the leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether.

Green House Effect

Atmospheric scientists first used the term 'greenhouse effect' in the early 1800s. At that time, it was used to describe the naturally occurring functions of trace gases in the atmosphere and did not have any negative connotations. It was not until the mid-1950s that the term greenhouse effect was coupled with concern over climate change. And in recent decades, we often hear about the greenhouse effect in somewhat negative terms. The negative concerns are related to the possible impacts of an enhanced greenhouse effect. It is important to remember that without the greenhouse effect, life on earth as would not be possible.

Greenhouse Effect is the build up of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These gases act like a blanket and trap heat, thereby leading to global warming. While the earth's temperature is dependent upon the greenhouse-like action of the atmosphere, the amount of heating and cooling are strongly influenced by several factors. The sun heats the Earth; solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, and is absorbed at the Earth’s surface. This heat is emitted from the surface as infra-red radiation. This infra-red radiation cannot escape the atmosphere easily. Instead, some is trapped by a number of gases, hence we have Greenhouse Effect.

Green House Gases

Two greenhouse gases with the largest concentrations are water vapour controlled by the hydrological cycle and carbon dioxide controlled by the carbon cycle. Methane , nitrous oxide , and a few other gases are greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is produced when the fuel is burnt. Plants convert the carbon dioxide back to oxygen but the release of carbon dioxide from human activities is higher than the world’s plants can process. The situation is made worse since many of the earth’s forests are being removed, and plants life is being damaged by acid rain. Thus the amount of carbon dioxide in the air is continuing to increase. This build up acts like a blanket and traps heat close to the surface of the earth. The planet is losing less heat and as a result we are beginning to experience Global Warming.

GLOBAL WARMING
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution around 1750 ther has been a sharp rise in :
•The use of fossil fuels which releases large amounts of the greenhouse gases into the troposphere,
•Deforestation and clearing and burning of grasslands to raise crops, which release carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere,
•Use of inorganic fertilizers which release nitrous oxide into the troposphere.
The increased inputs of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from human activities will :
•Enhance the earth’s natural greenhouse effect,
•Raise the average global temperature of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface.
This enhanced greenhouse effect is called Global Warming

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

Warming driven changes: The planet had been heating at the rate of 4 degrees Celsius per century in the last twenty years :
•Warming is causing the breakup of Antarctic ice shelves.
•High above the oceans, most of the earth’s glaciers are retreating – Peruvian Andes & Greenland ice sheet.
•The Arctic sea has thinned by 40 percent in the last two decades.
•Altered the timings of the seasons because of the buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Sea level: A 20 cm rise by 2030 is expected to result from glacial melting and from the thermal expansion of the oceans as water temperature rises, increasing the risk of flooding.

Water resources : Global rainfall patterns will change. This will have serious global implications , droughts & floods will become more common, water quality will suffer owing to an increase in algal blooms.

Terrestrial ecosystems : Many plants & animal species will have problems adapting , which may result in risk from extinction, whereas more tolerant varieties will thrive.

Human health : There is likely to be an increase in the spread of certain diseases – malaria, heat induced deaths are likely to increase, urban air pollution is likely to get worse.

Economic consequences : Rise in disaster relief costs to governments & escalating losses to the world’s property.