•In the 20th century environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly the American Bison. The endangerment of the American Bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. Notably in 1916 the National Park Service was founded by President Woodrow Wilson.
•In the 1970s the Chipko movement was formed in India; influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential.
•By the mid 1970s many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The Back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975.
•On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a UN conference in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and the follow-up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Agenda 21
Development of Agenda 21
•It is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans impact on the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st century
•The full text of Agenda 21 was revealed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), held in Rio de Janeiro on June 14th where 179 governments voted to adopt the programme. The final text was the result of drafting, consultation and negotiation, beginning in 1989 and culminating at the two-week conference
Structure and Contents- Agenda 21There are 40 chapters in Agenda 21, divided into four sections. All told the document was over 900 pages:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions
•including combating poverty, changing consumption patterns, population and demographic dynamics, promoting health, promoting sustainable settlement patterns and integrating environment and development into decision-making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development
•including atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), and control of pollution.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
•including the roles of children and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and workers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation
•including science, technology transfer, education, international institutions and mechanisms and financial mechanisms.
Agenda 21: Preamble
•Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at preparing the world for the challenges of the next century. It reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this context, the United Nations system has a key role to play. Other international, regional and sub regional organizations are also called upon to contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the active involvement of the non-governmental organizations and other groups should also be encouraged.
• The developmental and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 will require a substantial flow of new and additional financial resources to developing countries, in order to cover the incremental costs for the actions they have to undertake to deal with global environmental problems and to accelerate sustainable development. Financial resources are also required for strengthening the capacity of international institutions for the implementation of Agenda 21. An indicative order-of-magnitude assessment of costs is included in each of the programme areas. This assessment will need to be examined and refined by the relevant implementing agencies and organizations.
Kyoto Protocol
What is Kyoto Protocol?
•The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases that cause climate change. It was agreed on 11 December 1997 at the 3rd Conference of the Parties to the treaty when they met in Kyoto, and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
•It is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.
Aim of Kyoto Protocol
Aim to reduce collective emission of green house gases and prevent global warming
•The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement under which industrialized countries will aim to reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990 (but note that, compared to the emissions levels that would be expected by 2010 without the Protocol, this limitation represents a 29% cut). The goal is to lower overall emissions of six greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons - averaged over the period of 2008-2012. National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.
•The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment countries) to invest in projects that reduce emissions in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. The most important factor of a carbon project is that it establishes that it would not have occurred without the additional incentive provided by emission reductions credits.
•Joint implementation (JI) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment (so-called Annex 1 countries) to invest in emission reducing projects in another industrialised country as an alternative to emission reductions in their own countries. Countries with relatively high costs for emission reductions can reduce the costs of complying with their Kyoto targets by using credits from JI projects, as costs of emission reductions are significantly lower in some countries.
WTO & ENVIROMENT PROTECTION
•The WTO has no specific agreement dealing with the environment. However, the WTO agreements confirm governments’ right to protect the environment, provided certain conditions are met, and a number of them include provisions dealing with environmental concerns. The objectives of sustainable development and environmental protection are important enough to be stated in the preamble to the Agreement Establishing the WTO.
• The standing forum dedicated to dialogue between governments on the impact of trade policies on the environment, and of environment policies on trade.
•Under the Doha Development Agenda, the regular committee is also looking at the effects of environmental measures on market access, the intellectual property agreement and biodiversity, and labeling for environmental purposes
•Moreover, the institutional machinery working under WTO for investigating the trade and environment interface, and making positive suggestions towards the objective of sustainable development, is the committee on Trade and Environment (CTE).
The Committee On Trade and Environment
•The 1994 Ministerial Decision on Trade and Environment created the WTO’s Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE), which is open to the entire WTO membership, with some international organizations as observers. The committee’s mandate is broad, and it has contributed to identifying and understanding the relationship between trade and the environment in order to promote sustainable development
•CTE`s work programme
The work programme covers a range of relevant issues, from trade and the environment in general, liberalization and trade barriers, and taxes, to individual sectors such as services and intellectual property, and relations with environmental organizations.
•The Doha mandateThe 2001 Doha Declaration has a section dealing with the committee’s regular work. The focus is on effects of environmental measures on market access, the relevant provisions of the intellectual property agreement, labeling requirements for environmental purposes, technical assistance, sharing expertise for national environmental reviews and environmental aspects of the Doha negotiations.
Issues Sorted By CTE
Sustainable development
Trade is a powerful ally of sustainable development. The WTO’s founding agreement recognizes sustainable development as a central principle, and it is an objective running through all subjects in current Doha negotiations The purpose of trade liberalization and the WTO’s key principle of non-discrimination is a more efficient allocation of resources, which should be positive for the environment
Environmental requirements and market access
The effect of environmental measures on market access is particularly important to the work of the Trade and Environment Committee because it holds the key to ensure that sound trade and environmental policies work together.So, a balance is needed, between safeguarding market access and protecting the environment. WTO member governments agree that they have to examine how environmental measures could be designed
Labeling
Labeling is one of the subjects assigned to the Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE). It is part of an item (3b) on the committee’s work programme in which the committee is assigned to consider the relationship between the provisions of the WTO’s agreements and the requirements governments make for products in order to protect the environment The use of eco-labels (i.e. labeling products according to environmental criteria) by governments, industry and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is increasing
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