RESOURCES MODULE 3

Natural resources

Meaning

•Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource's value rests in the amount of the material available and the demand for it. The latter is determined by its usefulness to production.
A commodity is generally considered a natural resource when the primary activities associated with it are extraction and purification, as opposed to creation. Thus, mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, hunting, and forestry are generally considered natural-resource industries (natural resources include its minerals, energy, land, water, and biota )

Characteristics of resources
Resources have three main characteristics:
•utility,
•quantity (often in terms of availability), and
•use in producing other resources.

Types of resources

On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:

•Biotic - Biotic resources are the ones which are obtained from the biosphere. Forests and their products, animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms are important examples. Minerals such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they were formed from decayed organic matter.

•Abiotic - Abiotic resources comprise of non-living things. Examples include land, water, air and minerals such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.

On the basis of the stage of development, natural resources may be called

Potential Resources - Potential resources are those which exist in a region and may be used in the future. For example, mineral oil may exist in many parts of India having sedimentary rocks but till the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.

Actual Resources -are those which have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. For example, the petroleum and the natural gas which is obtained from the Bombay High Fields. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the actual resource which can be developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve.

On the basis of renew ability, natural resources can be categorized into:
•Renewable Resources - Renewable resources are the ones which can be replenished or reproduced easily. Some of them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer time, while still others, like forests, take even longer.

•Non-renewable Resources - Non-renewable resources are formed over very long geological periods. Minerals and fossils are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely slow, they cannot be replenished once they get depleted. Out of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them. But coal and petroleum cannot be recycled

Natural Resources Accounting

Natural Resources Accounting - accounting for the state and quality of the environment and the natural resource base by bringing the environment into national accounting through deductions from the gross domestic product for various aspects of environmental degradation such as the value of pollution abatement and control expenditure, the value of environmental damage during the accounting period and the depletion of natural resources

Exploitation of natural resources
•Exploitation of natural resources is an essential condition of the human existence.
•This refers primarily to food production, but minerals, timber, and a whole raft of other entities from the natural environment also have been extracted.
•Often the exploitation of nature has been done in a non-sustainable way, which is causing increasing concern, as a non-sustainable exploitation of natural resources ultimately threatens human existence Over-exploitation in some cases lead to exhaustion, particularly by excessive forestry, fishing and hunting. This over-exploitation may be explained in part by human overpopulation in some areas of the planet, ever-increasing world demand for these resources and the development of international trade.

Examples of over exploitation
•Industrial-scale logging, for wood products and timber, destroys or fragments millions of acres of forests each year, along with the habitat they provide to many uniquely adapted species.
•Over-harvesting of fisheries has driven several fish species to the brink of extinction and reduced the overall diversity of marine life.
•Over-hunting and illegal trade in endangered species are a prime threat to their survival. This occurs even in the well-developed countries such as the US. For example, box turtles in the US are illegally collected and exported as pets, and, they die in the tens of thousands each year. These species are very slow to reproduce, and, in some populations, poaching has resulted in too few hatchlings surviving to offset adult mortality
• Over Extraction of minerals from mining.

Soil Degradation

•Soil degradation occurs where our activities (either directly or indirectly) cause it to become less vigorous or less healthy. The ultimate degradation is the removal or loss of its physical components.Acidification, salinity, organic depletion, compaction, nutrient depletion, chemical contamination, landslides, and erosion are all forms of soil degradation that can be brought about by inappropriate land use practices.

A soil can degrade in 3 ways:
•Physical, chemical or biological run-down causing a reduction in vigor. This can result from excessive product removal (depleting soil nutrients), reduction in plant growth, lowered organic cycling, increasing soil temperatures, leaching, compaction and surface crusting.
•Reduction in mass and volume through erosion. This reduces the physical size of the soil ecosystem.
•Accumulation of specific soil chemicals to levels that detrimentally effect plant growth. Such materials include: soluble salts (causing salinity); hydrogen ions (causing acidification); and, some chemicals from industrial, mining and agricultural activities (chemical contamination

Forms of Soil Degradation
•Sheet and Rill Erosion -Rain drops and surface flows causing shallow stripping of soil.
•Gully Erosion- Concentrated flows of water scouring along flow routes causing sharp sided entrenched channels deeper than 0.5 m.
•Wind Erosion- Where wind has direct access to bare dry soil and causes soil detachment and removal. Fine material can be transported long distances. Coarser material moves only locally by bouncing and rolling.
• Land Slips -Where sloping soils become unstable and slip downhill. Usually brought about by increase in soil mass because of excess moisture in the soil. Can also result from construction activities.
• Acidification- Where the acid level of soil progressively increases and interferes with plant growth. Associated with nitrate leaching, product removal and fertilizer practice .
• Soil Compaction- Where productivity of soil is reduced because of physical changes to the nature of soil. Frequently associated with surface crusting, plough pans, dispersive clays, excessive cultivation and stock trampling.

Land Degradation
•Land pollution is the degradation of earth's land surfaces often caused by human activities and its misuse. Haphazard disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation of minerals, and improper use of soil by inadequate agricultural practices are a few of the contributing factors. Also, increasing urbanization, industrialization and other demands on the environment and its resources is of great consequence to many countries land surfaces often caused by human activities and its misuse. Haphazard disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation of minerals, and improper use of soil by inadequate agricultural practices are a few of the contributing factors. Also, increasing urbanization, industrialization and other demands on the environment and its resources is of great consequence to many countries We often assume that land degradation only affects soil fertility. However, the effects of land degradation often have more significant impacts on receiving water courses (rivers, wetlands and lakes) since soil, along with nutrients and contaminants associated with soil, are delivered in large quantities to environments that respond detrimentally to their input.
•Land degradation therefore has potentially disastrous impacts on lakes and reservoirs that are designed to alleviate flooding, provide irrigation, and generate hydroelectricity.

Causes of Land and Soil Degradation

The causes of land and soil degradation are mainly anthropogenic and related to agriculture :
1.Land clearance, such as clear cutting and deforestation
2.Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices
3.Livestock
4.Urban conversion
5.Irrigation
6.Pollution
7.Vehicle Off-roading

Effects of Land & Soil Degradation
The major stresses on land and soil include:
1.Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water
2.Soil acidification or alkalinisation
3.Salination
4.Destruction of soil structure including loss of organic matter
5.Derelict soil
•Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sown.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work. Energy is found on our planet in variety of forms, some of which are immediately used, while others require a process of transformation. The sun is the primary energy source. Most of the world’s energy comes from fossil fuels eg. oil, coal , natural gas etc. Energy is used for household use, agriculture, production of industrial goods and for transport.

ENERGY NEEDS
Energy has always been closely linked to man’s economic growth and development. The world’s demand for electricity has doubled over the last 22 years. Electricity is at present the fastest growing form of energy used worldwide. For almost 200 years coal was the primary energy source. At the end of the 20th century, oil accounted for 39 %, coal 24%,natural gas 24%, nuclear 7%,hydropower 6%.
In India as estimated in 2000 coal is predominant source accounting for 55% , oil 31%, natural gas 8%, hydro 5%, nuclear power 1%, biomass 40%,the use of natural gas has increased rapidly in the 80s and 90s.

TYPES OF ENERGY
Energy can be classified into:
-Renewable energy.
-Non- renewable energy.

Renewable energy : These are constantly replaced and are usually less polluting eg. Hydropower, solar, wind & geothermal.
Non- renewable energy: These consist of the mineral based hydrocarbon fuels also known as fossil fuels eg. Coal, oil & natural gas. When these are burnt, they produce harmful gases like C02,nitrogen ,C0 etc. causing air pollution.

NON RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Coal & Oil As Energy
•Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is the most abundant fossil fuel produced in the United States.
Coal is a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to create. The energy in coal comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the earth was partly covered with swampy forests. For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants. The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal.

USES OF COAL
•Coal as fuel
• Coking and use of coke
• Gasification
• Liquefaction - Coal-To-Liquids (CTL)
• Coal as a traded commodity

Environmental effects of coal:

• release of carbon dioxide and methane, both of which are greenhouse gas
  
• waste products including Uranium, Thorium, and other heavy metals
  
• acid rain
  
• interference with groundwater and water table levels
  
• impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses
  
• dust nuisance
  
• subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure
  
• rendering land unfit for the other uses.
  
  

OIL-PETROLEUM

• OIL together with natural gas, it makes up petroleum, which is Latin for "rock oil". Petroleum is basically a mix of naturally occurring organic compounds from within the earth that contain primarily hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. When petroleum comes straight out of the ground as a liquid it is called crude oil if dark and viscous, and condensate if clear and volatile. When solid it is asphalt, and when semi-solid it is tar. There is also natural gas, which can be associated with oil or found alone.
  

•ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term often refers to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters. The oil may be a variety of materials, including crude oil, refined petroleum products (such as gasoline or diesel fuel) or by-products, ships' bunkers, oily refuse or oil mixed in waste. Spills take months or even years to clean up.
Oil is also released into the environment from natural geologic seeps on the sea floor. Most man-made oil pollution comes from land-based activity, but public attention and regulation has tended to focus most sharply on seagoing oil tankers.

USES of OIL
•Food oils
Many edible vegetable and animal oils, and also fats, are used for various in cooking and food preparation..
• Fuel
Almost all oils burn in air generating heat, which can be used directly, or converted into other forms of energy by various means. Egs petroleum, fuel oil, diesel oil, petrol (gasoline), etc), though biological oils such as biodiesel are gaining market share.
•Heat transport
Many oils have higher boiling points than water and are electrical insulators, making them useful for liquid cooling systems, especially where electricity is used.
• Lubrication
Due to their non-polarity, oils do not easily adhere to other substances. This makes oil useful as lubricant for various engineering purposes.
•Petrochemicals
Crude oil can be processed into plastics and other substances.

Natural gas

•A gas used as a fuel, which is formed naturally in the earth when organic material decomposes under pressure.

Uses
•Power generation
Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of gas turbines and steam turbines
•Hydrogen
Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being the hydrogen reformer. Hydrogen has various applications: it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry, a hydrogenating agent
•Natural gas vehicles
Compressed natural gas (methane) is used as a cleaner alternative to automobile fuels
•Fertilizer
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, for use in fertilizer production
•Residential domestic use
Natural gas is supplied to homes, where it is used for such purposes as cooking in natural gas-powered ranges and/or ovens, natural gas-heated clothes dryers
•Other
Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, and other products

RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY

WIND POWER
Wind was the earliest energy source used for transportation by sailing ships. Wind power is the fastest growing of the renewable energy technologies, though it currently provides less than 0.5 percent of global energy. Denmark and Californai have large wind turbine cooperatives, which sell electriciry to the government. In Tamil Nadu there are large wind farms producing 850 mw of electricity. At present India is the third largest producer of wind energy in the world.
Over the past two decades, a great deal of technical progress has been made in design, siting, installation, operation and maintenance of wind- mills.These improvements have led to heigher wind conversion and lower electricity production cost.

Environmental Impacts: Has very few environmental impacts. Wind power is renewable and produces no greenhouse gases during operation, such as carbon dioxide and methane. The principal problems are bird kills, noise. Wind is an intermittent source depending on the geographic distribution of wind, therefore it cannot be used as the sole source of elctricity and requires some other electricity source.

HYDROPOWER
Hydropower or hydraulic power is the force or energy of moving water. It may be captured for some useful purpose Prior to the widespread availability of commercial electric power, hydropower was used for irrigation, and operation of various machines, such as watermills, textile machines, and sawmills. Today the largest use of hydropower is for the creation of hydroelectricity, which allows low cost energy to be used at long distances from the water source.Since water is about 800 times denser than air even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. The water flowing down a natural gradient can be used to turn the turbines to generate electricity known as ‘hydroelectric power’ by constructing dams across the rivers.
Drawbacks:
To produce hydroeletric power, large areas of forest and agricultural lands are submerged. These lands provide a livelihood for local tribalpeople and farmers. The silting of the reservoirs reduse the life of the hydroelectric poer installations.

SOLAR ENERGY
The sun has the largest quantum of energy. It is estimated that solar energy falling each day on earth is more than the total amount of energy the inhabitants of the world would consume in 27 years. The amount of sunlight varies greatly depending on geographical location, time of day, season and clouds.
In the last few decades, increasing environmental problems and declining fossil fuel resources have forced us to look at this tremendous source.

USE OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy technologies offer a clean, renewable and domestic energy source. Solar energy technologies have made huge technological and cost improvements. Researchers continue to develop technologies that will make solar energy technologies( power generating technologies) cost competitive with fossil fuels.
Few applications of solar energy:

• Solar heating for homes.
  
• Solar water heating.
  
• Solar cookers.
  
• Solar thermal electric power.
  
• Photovoltaic energy .
  
• Solar desalination systems.
  
  

BIOFUEL

Biofuel Definition
•Gas or liquid fuel made from plant material (biomass). Includes wood, wood waste, wood liquors, peat, railroad ties, wood sludge
Biofuel are derived from biomass. They differ from fossil fuels in that they are derived from renewable sources, including crops, animal waste and some forms of ‘rubbish’.

TYPES OF BIOFUEL

• First generation biofuel
  'First-generation fuels' refer to biofuel made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats using conventional technology
  
• Second generation biofuel
  Supporters of biofuel claim that a more viable solution is to increase political and industrial support for, and rapidity of, second-generation biofuel implementation from non food crops, including cellulosic biofuel. Second-generation biofuel production processes can use a variety of non food crops
  
• Third generation biofuel
  Algae fuel, also called oilgae or third generation biofuel, is a biofuel from algae. Algae are low-input/high-yield (30 times more energy per acre than land) feedstock to produce biofuel[ and algae fuel are biodegradable
  
  EXAMPLES OF BIOFUEL
  

Vegetable oil
•Vegetable oil can be used for either food or fuel; the quality of the oil may be lower for fuel use. Vegetable oil can be used in many older diesel engines

Biodiesel.
•Oils are mixed with sodium hydroxide and methanol (or ethanol) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel (FAME) and glycerol. 1 part glycerol is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel.

Solid Biofuel
•Examples include wood, charcoal, and dried manure

Biogas

Biogas is the biofuel substitute for natural gas. It derives from organic waste materials including animal waste and waste generated from municipal, commercial and industrial sources through the process of anaerobic digestion.


Benefits of use of biofuel

The main practical benefit of using biofuel alternatives is that they are easily integrated with fossil fuels and can be used within existing energy systems. .There are main environmental benefits of using biofuel in place of fossil fuels.

• nontoxic ,biodegradable & renewable,
• help reduce dependence on foreign oil
  
• oxygenated fuel, so it burns more completely than other fossil-based products
  
• biofuel offer the potential for long-term, secure energy supplies
  
• relatively cheap,.
  
• biofuels contribute significantly less to greenhouse gas emissions in their production and use than oil or natural gas.
  
• Helps in waste management
  
• Restores ecosystem
  
  

module 2 POPULATION

Population Explosion
•The rapid and dramatic rise in world population that has occurred over the last few hundred years. The world's population increased from 1.65 billion in 1900 to 3.02 billion in 1960. The United Nations estimated that the population reached 6 billion in late 1999. Thus, the size of the population nearly quadrupled in the span of 100 years, a historically unprecedented rate of increase.

Population growth
Population in itself is NOT the problem. The problem is fast rate of growth of people which is giving rise to overpopulation.
Overpopulation refers to when an organism's numbers exceed the carrying capacity of its habitat. In common parlance, the term usually refers to the relationship between the human population and its environment, the earth.
Overpopulation is not simply a function of the size or density of the population. Overpopulation can be determined using the ratio of population to available sustainable resources. If a given environment has a population of ten, but there is food or drinking water enough for only nine, then that environment is overpopulated.

How to set equlibrium between population & environment ?

INTRODUCTION

Overpopulation has had a major impact on the environment of Earth starting at least as early as the 20th century. Many posit that the human population has expanded, enabled by over-exploiting natural resources, with resultant adverse impacts upon biodiversity, aquifer sustainability, climate change and even human health. There are also indirect economic consequences of this environmental degradation in the form of ecosystem services attrition.

STEPS FOR SETTING EQUILIBRIUM

• Toward a livable future
  How people preserve or abuse the environment could largely determine whether living standards improve or deteriorate. Growing human numbers, urban expansion, and resource exploitation do not bode well for the future. Without practicing sustainable development, humanity faces a deteriorating environment and may even invite ecological disaster.
  


• Taking action:

Many steps toward sustainability can be taken today. These include: using energy more efficiently, managing cities better, phasing out subsidies that encourage waste, [etc.]

• Stabilizing population:

While population growth has slowed, the absolute number of people continues to increase (by about 1 billion every 13 years). Slowing population growth would help improve living standards and would buy time to protect natural resources. In the long run, to sustain higher living standards, world population size must stabilize.

• Slowing population growth

Environmentalists and economists increasingly agree that efforts to protect the environment and to achieve better living standards can be closely linked and are mutually reinforcing. Slowing the increase in population, especially in the face of rising per capita demand for natural resources, can take pressure off the environment and buy time to improve living standards on a sustainable basis.3,8,11,12

• Boost Living Standards

As population growth slows, countries can invest more in education, health care, job creation, and other improvements that help boost living standards.11 In turn, as individual income, savings, and investment rise, more resources become available that can boost productivity. This dynamic process has been identified as one of the key reasons that the economies of many Asian countries grew rapidly between 1960 and 1990.5

• Green development

It is a land use planning concept that includes consideration of community-wide or regional environmental implications of development, as well as site-specific green building concepts. This includes city planning, environmental planning, architecture, and community building

• Conservation & Management of Environment

Environmental sustainability is defined as the ability of the environment to continue to function properly indefinitely. This involves meeting the present needs of humans without endangering the welfare of future generations. The goal of environmental sustainability is to minimize environmental degradation, and to halt and reverse the processes they lead to.

This includes conservation of

Biome •In-situ conservation • Ex-situ conservatiosn

Water management

Natural Resource management

Conservation of atmosphere

Effects of overpopulation
•Inadequate fresh water
•Depletion of natural resources
•Increased levels of air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination and noise pollution

•Deforestation and loss of ecosystems. Changes in atmospheric composition and consequent global warming
•Mass species extinctions
•Poverty.

Remedies of Effects of overpopulation
•Water conservation & management
•Sustainable development
•Pollution control
•Natural & artificial regeneration of forests
•Social Awareness

Poverty & Population
•High infant and child mortality High rates of infant mortality are caused by poverty. Rich countries with high population densities have low rates of infant mortality.
•Increased chance of the emergence of new epidemics and pandemics]
•Starvation, malnutrition or poor diet with ill health and diet-deficiency diseases (e.g. rickets). Famine is aggravated by coupled with inflation in some regions and a resulting low level poverty. Rich countries with high population densities do not have famine .Poverty of capital formation. Poverty and inflation are aggravated by bad government and bad economic policies. Many countries with high population densities have eliminated absolute poverty and keep their inflation rates very low]
•Low life expectancy in countries with fastest growing populations
•Unhygienic living conditions for many based upon water resource depletion, discharge of raw sewage and solid waste disposal
•Elevated crime rate due to drug cartels and increased theft by people stealing resources to survive
•Conflict over scarce resources and crowding, leading to increased levels of warfare



Family Welfare
Introduction
Welfare of each citizen is the AIM of family welfare Department. It is tried to achieve mainly through saving the lives of mothers and children and improving their health status as well as checking the population growth
India launched the National Family Welfare Programme in 1951 with the objective of "reducing the birth rate to the extent necessary to stabilise the population at a level consistent with the requirement of the National economy. "The Family Welfare Programme in India is recognised as a priority area, and is being implemented as a 100% Centrally sponsored programme. As per Constitution of India, Family Planning is in the Concurrent list. The approach under the programme during the First and Second Five Year Plans was mainly "Clinical" under which facilities for provision of services were created. However, on the basis of data brought out by the 1961 census, clinical approach adopted in the first two plans was replaced by "Extension and Education Approach" which envisaged expansion of services facilities along with spread of message of small family norm.

Implementation of Family Welfare Programme

• Under the Guidance of Secretary & Commissioner (Family Welfare), Commissioner (Health) and Additional Director (Family Welfare) and through primary health care approach Family welfare department is striving to achieve complete welfare of the citizen by organizing and implementing RCH programme through out the state.
•The state Family Welfare department is also carrying out special schemes like Integrated Population Development Project, link couples, rapid referral services, moped loans, National Maternity Benefit Schemes etc. The department is actively working for polio eradication and Intensive Pulse Polio Campaign and surveillance for polio cases are being carried out.



Women & Child Welfare
•The Department of Women and Child Development was set up in the year 1985 as a part of the Ministry of Human Resource Development to give the much needed impetus to the holistic development of women and children. With effect from 30.01.2006, the Department has been upgraded to a Ministry under the independent charge of Smt. Renuka Chowdhury, Minister of State for Women and Child Development.

Mandate
•The broad mandate of the Ministry is to have holistic development of Women and Children. As a nodal Ministry for the advancement of women and children, the Ministry formulates plans, policies and programme; enacts/ amends legislation, guides and coordinates the efforts of both governmental and non-governmental organization working in the field of Women and Child Development. Besides, playing its nodal role, the Ministry implements certain innovative programme for women and children. These programme cover welfare and support services, training for employment and income generation, awareness generation and gender sensitization. These programme play a supplementary and complementary role to the other general developmental programme in the sectors of health, education, rural development etc. All these efforts are directed to ensure that women are empowered both economically and socially and thus become equal partners in national development along with men.

Policy Initiatives
•For the holistic development of the child, the Ministry has been implementing the world's largest and most unique and outreach programme of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) providing a package of services comprising supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check up and referral services, pre-school non-formal education.
• Ministry is also implementing Swayamsidha which is an integrated scheme for empowerment of women. There is effective coordination and monitoring of various sectoral programme. Most of the programmes of the Ministry are run through non-governmental organisations. Efforts are made to have more effective involvement of NGOs. The major policy initiatives undertaken by the Ministry in the recent past include universalisation of ICDS and Kishori Shakti Yojana, launching a nutrition programme for adolescent girls, establishment of the

Disaster Management

•Emergency management (or disaster management) is the discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It is a discipline that involves preparing for disaster before it happens, disaster response (e.g. emergency evacuation, quarantine, mass decontamination, etc.), as well as supporting, and rebuilding society after natural or human-made disasters have occurred.
•In general, any Emergency management is the continuous process by which all individuals, groups, and communities manage hazards in an effort to avoid or ameliorate the impact of disasters resulting from the hazards
•Disaster management is a multidisciplinary area in which a wide range of issues that range from forecasting, warning, evacuation, search, and rescue, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation are included.
It is also multi - sectoral as it involves administrators, scientists, planners, volunteers and communities.

Disaster Mitigation

Disaster Mitigation is any action or measure that either prevents that occurrence of a disaster or reduces the severity of its effects. The concept of Disaster Mitigation has been around for many years, even though the term may not be familiar to everyone. An example of Disaster Mitigation is the use of smoke alarms, sprinkler systems and fire escapes. Disaster Mitigation is an integral part of many data center operations, which routinely create backups of important data. Disaster Mitigation can reduce the effects of many hazards, not just fires

The disaster mitigation involves two categories and four phases each:

•Phases and professional activities - The process of emergency management involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery

•Phases and personal activities - The process of emergency management involves four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery

Phases and professional activities

Mitigation
Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from developing into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from the other phases because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk
Preparedness
In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop plans of action for when the disaster strikes. Common preparedness measures include the
•communication plans with easily understandable terminology and chain of command
•development and practice of multi-agency coordination and incident command
•proper maintenance and training of emergency services
•development and exercise of emergency population warning methods combined with emergency shelters and evacuation plans
•stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies and equipment
Response
• The response phase includes the mobilization of the necessary emergency services and first responders in the disaster area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency services, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews. They may be supported by a number of secondary emergency services, such as specialist rescue teams.
Recovery
•The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its previous state. It differs from the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that must be made after immediate needs are addressed. Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the repair of other essential infrastructure

Phases and personal activities
Mitigation
•Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoiding unnecessary risks. This includes an assessment of possible risks to personal/family health and to personal property- example of mitigation would be to avoid buying property that is exposed to hazards, e.g. in a flood plain, in areas of subsidence or landslides
Preparedness
•Preparedness measures can take many forms including the construction of shelters, installation of warning devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g. power, water, sewage), and rehearsing evacuation plans.
Response
•The response phase of an emergency may commence with search and rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affected population. This assistance may be provided by national or international agencies and organisations
•The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has subsided. During reconstruction it is recommended to consider the location or construction material of the property.
The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war, famine and severe epidemics and may last a year or more. Then recovery will take place inside the home. Planners for these events usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage and preparation equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life.

Note •ELEMENTS OF MITIGATING STEP WILL REMAIN SAME FOR ALL THE DISASTERS-(FLOOD,CYCLONE,EARTHQUAKE,ETC )

(WITH ABOVE MENTIONED MITIGATING STEPS MENTION FOLLOWING AS PER REQUIREMENT OF THE QUESTION)

FLOODS

Floods can be caused by natural, ecological or anthropogenic factors, either individually or as a combined result.
Anthropogenic activities, such as deforestation and shifting cultivation, can also contribute to floods.


Some mitigation measures for floods
Structural measures:
1. Prevention of over-bank spilling by the construction of embankments and floodwalls.
2. Improvement of flow conditions in the channel and anti-erosion measures.
3. Improved drainage.
4. Reservoirs for impounding monsoon flows to be released in a regulated manner after the peak flood flow passes.

non-structural measures :
1.Flood forecasting and warning services.
2.Disaster relief, flood fighting and public health measures.
3.Flood insurance.
4.Maintaining wet lands.
5.Flood forecasting and warning services.

Protection measures from damage to building:
-To avoid residing on river banks and slopes on river sides and the sides of gorges.
-To build at least 250 meters away from the sea coast/ river banks.
-To build proper drainage system in all flood prone areas, so that the water can be drained off quickly to prevent accumulation.

Cyclones:
Cyclones pose a major threat to life and property in many parts of the world. Every year these sudden, violent cyclones bring widespread devastation to coastlines and islands lying in their erratic paths.

Protection measures for damage to building
-Site selection
-Platforms and orientation
-Foundations
-Wall openings
-Glass panelling
-Roof architecture

Syllabus of EM

Course Contents

Module I: Introduction
NGOs and Environmental Activism. Ecosystems: Types of Eco-Systems, Geosphere – Biosphere and Hydrosphere introduction. Major issues of Biodiversity, Biosphere reserves, National Parks and sanctuaries, Natural Resources.

Module II: Population Growth and its effects on the environment:
Problem of Population growth, poverty and environment, Population Explosion, Family Welfare Programme, Women & Child Welfare. Natural Disasters: Floods, earthquakes, cyclones, land slides, disaster management.

Module III: Resources: Renewable and non-renewable
Defining resources, classification of resources, soil and land degradation, economic development and resources use, natural resources accounting. Energy needs, renewable and nonrenewable energy resources, introduction to solar energy and its availability, wind power and its potential, hydropower as a clean source of energy, coal, oil, natural gas etc. introduction to biofuel.

Module IV:Pollution and Solid Waste
Water Pollution: Water resources of India, Hydrological Cycle, methods of water conservation and management, river action plan, ground and surface water pollution. Recycling and management of water and wastewater (domestic and industrial). Air Pollution: Air pollution and air pollutants, sources of air pollution and its effected on human health and vegetations. Green house effect, global warming and climate change. Ambient air quality standards, steps taken by Government to control air pollution. Noise pollution and its impacts on human health.
Solid Waste: Municipal Solid Waste Management, segregation, disposal methods, composting, land fill sites etc. Hazardous waste management, biomedical waste management.

Module V: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management System (EMS):
Introduction to EIA, its impact and case study, notification of MOEF, introduction to ISO 9000 and 14000 standards, environmental information system (EIS), role of information technology in environment. Forest / Dams: Forest degradation and management, hazard based environmental issues, Fast depletion of forest resources and their regeneration, environmental issues related to Mega Hydroelectric Projects / Dams, resettlement and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns.

Module VI: Indian and International efforts for environmental protection
Legal framework: Constitutional provisions, the Indian Penal Code, Role of Judiciary in Environmental Protection, Emergence of Environmental Issues, Stockholm Conference on Environment, 1972 and Agenda 21. International Protocols, WTO, Kyoto Protocol, International Agreement on Environmental Management.

Module 1 Eco-System

Geosphere
•The term Geosphere is often used to refer to the densest parts of Earth, which consist mostly of rock and regolith . In modern texts, geosphere refers to the solid parts of the Earth and is used along with atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere to describe the systems of the Earth. In that context, some geologists prefer "lithosphere" over geosphere, but these words can be used interchangeably .
•The term originally applies to the four nested geospheres identified solid (earth), liquid (water), gas (air), and plasma (fire). The nested geospheres then include the asthenosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the ionosphere or plasmasphere. The dense geosphere is also subdivided into the crust, mantle, and core. The outer core is unusual in that it is considered to be a liquid, yet it is a part of Earth's interior. The term Geosphere is often used to refer to the densest parts of Earth, which consist mostly of rock and regolith .


Biosphere
•The biosphere is the part of the Earth, including air, land, surface rocks, and water, within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. This biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning through a process of biogenesis or biopoesis, at least some 3.5 billion years ago.


HYDROSPHERE
•A hydrosphere (Greek hydro means "water") in physical geography describes the collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet
•The Earth's hydrosphere consists of water in all forms: the ocean (which is the bulk of the hydrosphere), other surface waters including inland seas, lakes, and rivers; rain; underground water; ice (as in glaciers and snow); and atmospheric water vapor (as in clouds). The average depth of the oceans is 3,794 m (12,447 ft), more than five times the average height of the continents
•The abundance of water on Earth is a unique feature that distinguishes our "Blue Planet" from others in the solar system. Approximately 70.8 percent (97% of it being sea water and 3% fresh water) of the Earth is covered by water and only 29.2 percent is landmass. Earth's solar orbit, volcanism, gravity, greenhouse effect, magnetic field and oxygen-rich atmosphere seem to combine to make Earth a water planet.
•The water cycle describes the methods of transport for water in the hydrosphere. This cycle includes water beneath the Earth's surface and in rocks (lithosphere), the water in plants and animals (biosphere), the water covering the surface of the planet in liquid and solid forms, and the water in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor, clouds, and precipitation. Movement of water within the hydrosphere is described by the hydrologic cycle. It is easy to see this motion in rivers and streams, but it is harder to tell that there is this motion in lakes and ponds.

Biodiversity
•Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem & biome
• Biodiversity found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species, the product of four billion years of evolution.
•The most straightforward definition of biodiversity is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization". A second definition holds that biodiversity is a measure of the relative diversity among organisms present in different ecosystems. "Diversity" in this definition includes diversity within a species and among species, and comparative diversity among ecosystems.
•The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined "biodiversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". This is, in fact, the closest thing to a single legally accepted definition of biodiversity, since it is the definition adopted by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is often used by ecologists as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region“ thus indicating the three levels at which biodiversity exisits:

•genetic diversity - diversity of genes within a species. There is a genetic variability among the populations and the individuals of the same species. (See also population genetics.)

•species diversity - diversity among species in an ecosystem. "Biodiversity hotspots" are excellent examples of species diversity.

•ecosystem diversity - diversity at a higher level of organization, the ecosystem. Diversity of habitat in a given unit area. To do with the variety of ecosystems on Earth.

Major issues of Biodiversity
•During the last century, erosion of biodiversity has been increasingly observed. Some studies show that about one eighth known plant species is threatened with extinction. Some estimates put the loss at up to 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory) and subject to discussion.The figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because only a small number of species come into being each year. Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates
•The factors that threaten biodiversity have been variously categorized. Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extensions. Edward Wilson prefers the acronym - HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population, and Overharvesting

Major Issues
•Destruction of habitats
• Exotic species
•Genetic pollution
•Hybridization and genetics

Conservation & Managementof Biodiversity
•The conservation of biological diversity has become a global concern. Although not everybody agrees on extent and significance of current extinction, most consider biodiversity essential. There are basically two main types of conservation options, in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation.
•In-situ conservation means "on-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators

• Ex-situ conservatiosn means literally, "off-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans. While ex-situ conservation comprises some of the oldest and best known conservation methods, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.


Biosphere Reserve
The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the 'Man & biosphere' (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971
The term ‘Biosphere Reserve' should denote an area:
•which is, set aside for the conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment;
•which is, to serve as sites for long term scientific research as well as education all over the world.
Biosphere Reserve Objectives
Each Biosphere Reserve is intended to fulfill three basic functions, which are complementary and mutually reinforcing:
•• A conservation function - to contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation;
•• A development function - to foster economic and human development which is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable;
•• A logistic function - to provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development (UNESCO, 2005 s


Protected area categories

•National Parks Conservation of species of a habitat with minimal or very low intensity of human activity. No human resides in the Park, other than a public servant on duty and permitted persons by the Chief Wild Life Warden .Its zone Core

• Sanctuaries Conservation of species and habitats by manipulative management. No human resides in the Sanctuary, other than a public servant on duty and permitted persons by the Chief Wild Life Warden. Its zone - Core, Buffer and Restoration

• Biosphere Reserves Conservation of the natural resources and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment therein. Both natural and human-influenced ecosystems; substantial human settlements (rural). Its zone - Core, Buffer, Restoration and Cultural


Wildlife Parks & Sanctuaries in India
The Indian wildlife heritage has a unique status worldwide. It has the second largest base of bio diversity in the world, with 441 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 80 National Parks, which have become destinations for visitors from all around the world. Accounts of man-eaters of Kumaon and other wildlife encountered by Jim Corbett, are fascinating and true, and just a glimpse of many other mysteries and delights of the Indian wildlife that is housed in the sanctuaries around the country. Another incredible feature of these amazing conservatories of exotic wildlife is that they are home to the largest number of tigers and one-horned rhinoceros in the world, as well as the almost extinct Asiatic Lion, and a large percentage of the total elephant population! Also, India's wildlife sanctuaries which cover about 90,000 sq km house more than 500 species of mammals, over 2000 species of birds, over 500 species of reptiles and amphibians and around 30000 species of insects.

MODULE 5 Deforestation

Deforestation
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land for use such as arable land, pasture, urban use, logged area, or wasteland. Generally, the removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. In many countries, massive deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography.
Causes of deforestation
There are many causes, ranging from slow forest degradation to sudden and catastrophic
• clear cutting,
• slash-and-burn,
• urban development
• acid rain, and
• wildfires.
Deforestation can be the result of the deliberate removal of forest cover for agriculture or urban development, or it can be a consequence of grazing animals, primarily for agriculture. In addition to the direct effects brought about by forest removal, indirect effects caused by edge effects and habitat fragmentation can greatly magnify the effects of deforestation.

Impact On Environment
Generally, the removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with :
•Reduced biodiversity.
•Changed climate and geography.
•Deforestation affects the amount of water in the soil and groundwater and the moisture in the atmosphere.
•Deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably
•Deforestation lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transport precipitation. Deforestation also contributes to decreased vapor transpiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels down wind from the deforested area .

Long-term gains can be obtained by managing forest lands sustainable to maintain both forest cover and provide a biodegradable renewable resource. Forests are also important stores of organic carbon, and forests can extract carbon dioxide and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability and probably relevant to the greenhouse effect. Forests are also valued for their aesthetic beauty and as a cultural resource and tourist attraction

Economic impact
•Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries almost 3 billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking. The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, often leads to loss of long-term income. Both West Africa and Southeast Asia have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually

Forest Regeneration
Forest regeneration is the act of renewing tree cover by establishing young trees naturally or artificially-generally, promptly after the previous stand or forest has been removed. The method, species, and density are chosen to meet the goal of the landowner. Forest regeneration includes practices such as changes in tree plant density through human-assisted natural regeneration, enrichment planting, reduced grazing of forested savannas, and changes in tree provenances/genetics or tree species. "Human-assisted natural regeneration" means establishment of a forest age class from natural seeding or sprouting after harvesting through selection cutting, shelter (or seed-tree) harvest, soil preparation, or restricting the size of a clear-cut stand to secure natural regeneration from surrounding trees. "Enrichment planting" means increasing the planting density (i.e., the numbers of plants per hectare) in an already growing forest stand.

Definition and Purposes
Technically the term “dam” relates to the barrier constructed across a stream, valley or similar natural depression for the purpose of impounding water, but popular usage includes the impounded water along with the barrier.
Apart from the obvious requirements of storage for community or stock water supply, the economic purposes served by impounding of water by dams are: land irrigation, generation of electricity by hydraulic power, amelioration of flooding by partial retention of flood waters, and improvement of natural waterway facilities for inland navigation.
Hydroelectricity is electricity produced by hydropower. It is a renewable source of energy, produces no waste, and does not produce carbon dioxide (CO2) which contributes to greenhouse gases. Hydroelectricity now supplies about 715,000 MW or 19% of world electricity (16% in 2003), accounting for over 63% of the total electricity from renewable in 2005.
Negative Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects
•The construction of large dams completely change the relationship of water and land, destroying the existing ecosystem balance which, in many cases, has taken thousands of years to create. Currently there are around 40,000 large dams which obstruct the world's rivers, completing changing their circulation systems: this is not going to occur without dire environmental impactsThroughout the past few years, the negative impacts of dams have become so well known that most countries have stopped building them altogether and are now forced to invest their money into fixing the problems created by existing dams

Greenhouse gas emissions

The reservoirs of power plants in tropical regions may produce substantial amounts of methane carbon di oxide. This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment, and forming methane, a very potent greenhouse gases.

Soil Erosion
One of the first problems with dams is the erosion of land. Dams hold back the sediment load normally found in a river flow, depriving the downstream of this. In order to make up for the sediments, the downstream water erodes its channels and banks. This lowering of the riverbed threatens vegetation and river wildlife. One of the reasons dams are built is to prevent flooding. However, most ecosystems which experience flooding are adapted to this and many animal species depend on the floods for various lifecycle stages, such as reproduction and hatching. Annual floods also deposit nutrients and replenish wetlands.

Species Extinction
As fisheries become an increasingly important source of food supply, more attention is being paid to the harmful effects of dams on many fish and marine mammal populations. The vast majority of large dams do not include proper bypass systems for these animals, interfering with their lifecycles and sometimes even forcing species to extinction.
Changes to Earth's RotationNasa geophysicist have found evidence that large dams cause changes to the earth's rotation, because of the shift of water weight from oceans to reservoirs. Because of the number of dams which have been built, the Earth's daily rotation has apparently sped up by eight-millionths of a second since the 1950s. Chao said it is the first time human activity has been shown to have a measurable effect on the Earth's

Animal diseases
Animals are subject to a similar range of water related diseases as humans. They may also act as reservoirs for human water-based infections and infections with water-related insect vectors. The promotion of animal husbandry as a secondary, income generating activity for farmers in newly irrigated areas should be carefully evaluated for its possible environmental and health risks.

Aquatic weeds
The main problems of aquatic weeds are that they reduce the storage and conveyance capacity of reservoirs, canals and drains and increase water loss through evapotranspiration. Most irrigation schemes suffer infestations of exotic species. They are difficult and expensive to control, though the use of linings, shade and intermittent drying out can compliment traditional techniques of mechanical removal, careful herbicide application and the introduction of weed eating fish and insects.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of people( its problems and concerns.)
•Towns and forests located in areas that will be inundated will have to be demolished and removed in order to increase navigability on the river. The loss of forests and agricultural lands will lead to erosion and the build up of sediment at the base of the river and reservoir. This could lead to increased flooding upstream. Sediments and silt contain valuable nutrients necessary to agricultural production. The blocking of sediments behind the dam means that these nutrients may not reach fertile farmland downstream of the dam. This could reduce the fertility of the land.
•The destruction of the villages also leads to problems of pollution. The Yangtze River is already polluted from the shipping of coal, acid rain, and its central location in Chinese industrial activity. Pollutants from towns and waste dumps that will be inundated will add to this pollution. Some funds were set up to aid in cleaning the area for the reservoir, but only the future will show whether a sufficient job was done. Water moves slower in the reservoir and some are concerned that the pollution will sit and worsen water quality of the river.

Population change
Irrigation projects tend to encourage population densities to increase either because they are part of a resettlement project or because the increased prosperity of the area attracts incomers. Major changes should be anticipated and provided for at the project planning stage through, for example, sufficient infrastructure provision. Impacts resulting from changes to the demographic/ethnic composition should also be considered. Training is an important component if new skills are expected.

Income and amenity
The most common socio-economic problems reducing the income generating capacity of irrigation schemes are:
• the social organization of irrigation operation and maintenance (O&M): who will carry out the work (both operation and maintenance); when will irrigation take place (rotation schedules); Poor O&M contributes significantly to long-term salinity and water-logging problems and needs to be adequately planned at the design stage.
• reduced farming flexibility. Irrigation may only be viable with high-value crops thus reducing activities such as grazing animals, operating woodlots etc.
• insufficient external supports such as markets, agro-chemical inputs, extension and credit facilities

Human migration
•Human migration (outside of the nomadic way of life) and displacement are commensurate with a breakdown in community infrastructure which results in a degree of social unrest and may contribute to malnutrition and an increased incidence of disease. Large, new irrigation schemes attract temporary populations both during construction and during peak periods of agricultural labour demands and provision for their accommodation needs to be anticipated. The problems of displacement during project construction or rehabilitation can usually be solved by providing short-term support.

Resettlement
•Often the most significant social issue arising is resettlement of people displaced by the flooding of land and homes or the construction of canals or other works. This can be particularly disruptive to communities and, in the past, insensitive project development has caused unnecessary problems by a lack of consultation at the planning stage and inadequate compensation of the affected population. Technical ministries should seek expert assistance at an early stage. Community re-establishment often includes, for example, pilot farms, extension services and credit schemes.

MODULE 5 Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF)

•The Ministry of Environment & Forests is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central Government, for the planning, promotion, co-ordination and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes. MoEF oversees all environmental matters in the country and is a permanent member of the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council.

•The Ministry also plays a pivotal role as participant of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The principal activities undertaken by Ministry of Environment & Forests consist of conservation of forests and wildlife, prevention & control of pollution, forestation & regeneration of degraded areas and protection of environment, in the frame work of legislations.

•The main tools utilized for this include surveys, impact assessment, control of pollution, regeneration programmes, support to organizations, research to solve solutions and training to augment the requisite manpower, collection and dissemination of environmental information and creation of environmental awareness among all sectors of the country's population


Functions of MoEF

•Management of environment and ecology.
•Matters relating to environment pollution control.
•Conservation of forests and development of forest resources (government and private), forest inventory, grading and quality control of forest products.
•Forestation and regeneration of forest extraction of forest produce.
•Plantation of exotic cinchona and rubber.
•Botanical gardens and botanical surveys.
•Tree plantation.
•Planning cell is responsible for preparation of schemes and coordination in respect of forest.
•Research and training in forestry.
•Mechanized forestry operations.
•Protection of wild birds and animals and establishment of sanctuaries.
•Matters relating to marketing of forest produce.
•Liaison with international organizations and matters relating to treaties and agreements with other countries and world bodies relating to subjects allotted to this Ministry.

Organisational Structure OF MoEF

It covers a number of Divisions, Directorates, Boards, Subordinate Offices, Autonomous Institutions & public sector undertakings.
Divisions of MoEF:
•Animal welfare.
•Conservation and survey.
•Control of pollution.
•Environment Education.
•Environment Research.
•Environmental Impact Assessment.
Subordinate offices:
•Botanical survey of India, Kolkata.
•Directorate of Forest Education, Dehradun.
•National Zoological Park, New Delhi.
•National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi.


Autonomous Institutions:
•Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi.
•Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi.
•GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora.
•Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun.

MODULE 5 Environmental Impact Assessment

•In 1970, the United states of America became the first country to make EIA a legal requirement for major development projects .Since then the countries throughout the world are making laws suiting their own constitution ,economics ,social values etc.

What is EIA?
The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals to the environment and human beings.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider environmental impacts before deciding whether to proceed with new projects. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a tool that seeks to ensure sustainable development through the evaluation of those impacts arising from a major activity (policy, plan, program, or project) that are likely to have significant environmental effects. It is anticipatory, participatory, and systematic in nature and relies on multidisciplinary input


Aims of EIA

•Predict environmental impact of projects;
•Find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts;
•Shape the projects to suit local environment;
•Present the predictions and options to the decision-makers.


EIA in INDIA

•In India Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been formally introduced and was made mandatory in 1994 under the environmental protection Act of 1986.The notification specifies 30 categories of projects with potential to degrade environment, including polluting industries.


•On 10 April 1997 the amendment in the EIA notification was made by introducing Environmental Public Hearing (EPH) in Environmental Clearance process. Before issuing NOC the State Pollution Control Board has to organize public hearing for the proposed project.

The EPH Committee hears the objection/suggestion regarding the project from public and hand over them to Ministry of Forest & Environment. Certain clauses are added to the EC of the project based on the objection/suggestion discussed in public hearing. It is an ideal system of public participation in environmental clearance process.


Environment Impact Assessment Notification Under MoEF

The Environment Impact Assessment Notification was issued in 1997 to put in place a mechanism by which certain kinds of development and industrial processes/activities would need environmental clearance from the MoEF. These projects listed in Schedule 1 of the Notification included mining, river valley projects, ports, harbours and airports, exploration of oil/gas, distilleries, urban construction, and so on. The Notification also makes it mandatory for a process of public hearing that would bring the project proposer and the affected people face to face, and allow for objections to be raised and clarifications sought.


List of Projects

•The entire list of projects in the schedule is required to go through the environmental clearance process . The draft categorizes these projects into A, B and A/B.
• Projects in Category A would require a clearance from the Centre, those in B from the State governments and that in A/B will be recategorized A or B based on a screening process by an Expert Appraisal Committee constituted by the Centre.

Limitations of EIA in India


1.Poor governance.
2.Undue delays.
3.Rapid economic reforms.
4.Lack of awareness (public hearing).
5.Favors to small-scale units.
6.Poor quality EIA reports.


Environmental management system (EMS)
ISO 9000
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a world wide federation of national standards bodies, having its headquarter at Geneva in Switzerland. The objective of ISO is to promote the development of standardization with a view to facilitating international exchange of goods and services and to develop cooperation in the sphere of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity.
India is the founding member of ISO and participating through BIS as active member.


What is ISO 9000
ISO 9000 is a series of 5 international standards for ‘ Quality Management and Quality Assurance Systems’ which can be adopted by all types of organisations producing goods, services or softwares.
It defines the basic disciplines and specifies the procedures and criteria to ensure that the product or service of the organisation consistently meets the customer’s requirements.
The series consists of ISO 9000, 9001, 9002, 9003, 9004.

Salient Features

• It is obligatory to identify non- conformities.
• Systematic prevention of non- conformities.
• Requires a formally documented procedure for each and every activity.
• Requires faithful implementation of procedures and their revision.
• Confines to standard formulation, implementation is left to individual nations.

Benefits of ISO 900

• Customer satisfaction.
• Recognition.
• Legal aspects.
• Confidence creation.
• Consistency in quality.
• Documented.

ISO 14000

The ISO 14000 family addresses "environmental management". This means what the organization does to:

• Minimize harmful effects on the environment caused by its activities
• To achieve continual improvement of its environmental performance.
  ISO 14000 is derived from ISO quality standards 9000 but is broader in scope because environmental issues are larger issues affecting the nation’s and world’s resources and living conditions. It requires organisations to be concerned with everything from raw materials to end products. ISO 14000 enables the organisation’s EMS to :
  •Formulate and define policy and objectives in this regard.
  •Formulate a plan to implement the policy and objective.
  •Develop support system to achieve the implementation of policy.
  •Monitor and evaluate environmental performance.
  •Review the EMS for continued improvement.
  •ISO 14000 is a series of international standards on environmental management. It provides a framework for the development of an environmental management system and the supporting audit programme.
  •The main thrust for its development came as a result of the Rio Summit on the Environment held in 1992.

EMSEnvironmental management system means that part of the overall management system, which includes the organisational structure, responsibilities, practices and resources for determining and implementing the environmental policy. It is a system that enables any organisation irrespective of its size, type & setting tomanage environmental impacts arising out of its
activities, product & services

1.Ensures compliance to regulations

2.Brings continual improvements

3.Demonstrate high environmental performance to others by conforming to policy, objectives & targets

Role Of Information Technology in Environment

Information technology is a powerful tool for meeting environmental objectives and promoting sustainable development.It is used to facilitate comunication, development, analysis and practice of environmental objectives etc. The computer age has turned the world around due to the incredible rapidity with which IT spreads knowledge.

Environmental Management and Technology.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) :

• It is a tool to map landuse patterns by studying digitized toposheets .
• GIS can be used for design and development of Environmental projects:
• Environmental Auditing.
• Environmental Impact Assessment.
• Detailed Project Reports.
• Waste Water Treatment Systems.
• Environmental Planning and Infrastructure Master Plans.

Use of GIS for Architecture and Engineering:

•Landscape and Environmental Planning.
•Disaster Assessment & Management System.
•Human Settlements Planning & Development.

The internet with its thousands of websites has made it very simple to get the appropriate environmental information for any study or environmental management planning. It is a powerful tool to increase public awareness about environmental issues.

MODULE 6 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

ØVIENNA CONVENTION (1985) : outlines states' responsibilities for protecting human health and the environment against the adverse effects of ozone depletion, established the framework under which the Montreal Protocol was negotiated.

ØMONTREAL PROTOCOL (1987): is a landmark international agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992. The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds that deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by 2000 (2005 for methyl chloroform).

ØBASEL CONVENTION (1989):The Basel Convention on the( Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal) is an international treaty in which 170 parties participated, was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries .The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation.

ØRIO DECLARATION (1992):The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14June1992,reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June1972,and seeking to build up it, with the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States.

ØCONVENTIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE & ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: (1994):
The world community at Rio Conference showed unanimity to prevent global climate change and eradication of biologically diverse species. This conventions were signed by more than 150 nations. The convention on climate change requires the States to take steps to reduce their emissions of gases contributing to global warming. The other convention on biodiversity requires the States to take steps for protection of the world’s diverse plant and animal species.

ØGLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY (1992): was established as a cooperative venture of the World Bank, UNEP and UNDP,an independent financial organization, that provides grants to developing countries for projects that benefit the global environment . GEF grants support projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants. It was set up during the 1992 Earth Summit with 27 members initially. At the Fourth GEF Assembly in 2006, an additional $3.13 billion was committed

Stockholm Conference 1972

DECLARATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT (1972)

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972, Having considered the need for a common outlook and for common principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment

SOME PRINCIPLES OF THE CONFERENCE

•The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world; it is the urgent desire of the peoples of the whole world and the duty of all Governments.

• Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations.

•The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate. The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable resources must be maintained and, wherever practicable, restored or improved.

•Economic and social development is essential for ensuring a favorable living and working environment for man and for creating conditions on earth that are necessary for the improvement of the quality of life.

• In the developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused by under-development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation. Therefore, the developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing in mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment. For the same purpose, the industrialized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap themselves and the developing countries. In the industrialized countries, environmental problems are generally related to industrialization and technological development.

•The important outcome of the meet was realization that environmental problems are essentially by-products linked to intense industrialization and the use of the technology by society and , therefore, a scientific technical approach alone would be able to solve them. Following this conference The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) was set up

MODULE 6 Indian Penal Code and Environment Protection

Indian Penal Code 1860, makes various acts affecting environment as offences. IPC can be used to prevent pollution of atmosphere. Thus no trade, business or manufacturing process can be carried out in residential area which produces noxious and offensive smell.

Chapter XIV of IPC containing Sections 268 to 290 deals with offences affecting the public health, safety, convenience, decency and morals. Its object is to safeguard the public health, safety and convenience by causing those acts punishable which make environment polluted or threaten the life of the people.

Section 268 & 290 of IPC defines public nuisance and provides for punishment of fine upto Rs. 200 for public nuisance respectively. Under these provisions any act or omissions of a person which caused injury to another by polluting the environment can be controlled.
Public Nuisance: a person is guilty of public nuisance who does any act or is guilty of an illegal omission which causes any common injury, danger to the people in general who dwell or occupy the property in the vicinity or cause injury, danger , obstruction to persons who use any public right.


Section 269 & 270 of IPC provides, whoever negligently or malignantly does any act which spreads the infection of disease dangerous to life, can be controlled by punishing the person responsible for such act with imprisonment upto six months to six years or with fine or both respectively.

Section 277 provides, whoever voluntarily fouls the water of any public spring or reservoir, so as to render it less fit for the purpose for which it is ordinarily used, shall be punished with imprisonment for three months or with fine of five hundred rupees or with both.

Section 278 provides, whoever voluntarily vitiates the atmosphere in any place so as to make it noxious to the health of persons dwelling or carrying on business in the neighbourhood or passing along the public way, shall be punished with fine upto Rs.500.

Section 284 provides, whoever does, with any poisonous substance, any act in a manner so rash or negligent as to endanger human life, or to be likely to cause hurt or injury to any person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of 6 months or with fine upto Rs.1000 or with both.

Section 285 provides, whoever does, with the fire or any combustible matter, any act rashly or negligently as to endanger human life, to be likely to cause or injury to any other person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of 6 months, or with fine upto Rs.10000 or with both.

Section 286 provides, whoever does, with any explosive substance, any act rashly or negligently as to endanger human life, to be likely to cause or injury to any other person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of 6 months, or with fine upto Rs.10000 or with both.

Under sections 426,430,432 of IPC general pollution caused by mischief can be controlled and the same is punishable.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

PREAMBLE
The preamble of the Constitution of India provides that our country is based on “Socialistic” pattern of society. The basic aim of socialism is to provide “ decent standard of life to all”, which is possible only in pollution free environment. Pollution is a social problem and the State is required to pay more attention to it.

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Article 47 of the Constitution is one of the Directive principles of the State policy and it provides that the State shall regard raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties. The improvement of public health includes the protection and improvement of environment without which public health cannot be assured.
The Environmental protection and improvement were explicitly incorporated into the Constitution of India by the 42 Amendment Act(1976), which added Article 48A to the Directive principles of State policy and declares that,
“ the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life for the country.”


FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

Article 51A(g) on “Fundamental Duties” imposed a similar responsibility on every citizen to protect and improve environment. It states, “It should be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.”
Thus, Indian Constitution became one of the rare constitutions of the world where specific provisions were incorporated in putting obligations on the “State” as well as “citizens” to “protect and improve” the environment.
Constitutional Provisions provides for local management of resources and are implemented through environmental protection laws of the country.

Case studies for Role of Judiciary
Constitutional Provisions
•KINKRI DEVI V. STATE :
A public interest litigation was filed in which it was alleged that the unscientific and uncontrolled quarrying of the limestone has caused damage to the Shivalik hills and was imposing danger to the ecology, environment and inhabitants of the area.
The H.P high court relying on previous judgement provided that if a just balance is not struck between development and environment by proper tapping of resources, there will be violation of Articles 14, 21,48A and 51 A(g) of the constitution. The court observed that natural resources have got to be tapped for the purpose of social development but the tapping has to be done with care so that ecology and environment may not be effected . The resources re permanent asset of mankind and are not intended to be exhausted in one generation. Thus the court issued a direction to the state government to set up a committee to examine the issue of proper granting of mining lease keeping in view the protection of environment.


AMBUGA PETROCHEMICALS V. A.. P. POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD.
The effluent treatment plant of the said industry was not in operation thereby causing water pollution resulting in danger of public life. The State Pollution control Board ordered the industry to close.
ØHereunder case was filed by Ambuga Petrochemicals as they considered the order as in-appropriate and severe.
ØIt was held by the court that the order of the board was neither dis-appropriate nor severe.

M.C MEHTA V. UNION OF INDIA (TAJ MAHAL CASE)
A Public Interest Litigation was filed alleging that due to environmental pollution there is degradation of Taj Mahal. According to the opinion of the expert committees, the use of coal by industries situated within the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ) were emitting pollution and causing damage to the Taj as also to the people living in the area.
The court held that Taj apart , apart from being a cultural heritage is also an industry. The court followed the path of sustainable development and applied “ precautionary principle”.
Directions issued by the court :
All industries operating in TTZ must use natural gas as a substitute for coal, as an industrial fuel. The industries which are not in a position to use natural gas, must stop functioning in TTZ and they may relocate themselves in new industrial areas and the incentives were to be given for relocation.

Emergence of Environmental issues, Agenda 21 ,Kyoto Protocol,CTE

•It was the Industrial Revolution that gave rise to modern environmental pollution as it is generally understood today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste .Environmentalism grew out of the amenity movement, which was a reaction to industrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution.



•In the 20th century environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly the American Bison. The endangerment of the American Bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. Notably in 1916 the National Park Service was founded by President Woodrow Wilson.


•In the 1970s the Chipko movement was formed in India; influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential.


•By the mid 1970s many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The Back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975.


•On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a UN conference in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and the follow-up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).




Agenda 21

Development of Agenda 21

•It is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans impact on the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st century

•The full text of Agenda 21 was revealed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), held in Rio de Janeiro on June 14th where 179 governments voted to adopt the programme. The final text was the result of drafting, consultation and negotiation, beginning in 1989 and culminating at the two-week conference


Structure and Contents- Agenda 21There are 40 chapters in Agenda 21, divided into four sections. All told the document was over 900 pages:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions
•including combating poverty, changing consumption patterns, population and demographic dynamics, promoting health, promoting sustainable settlement patterns and integrating environment and development into decision-making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development
•including atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), and control of pollution.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
•including the roles of children and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and workers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation
•including science, technology transfer, education, international institutions and mechanisms and financial mechanisms.

Agenda 21: Preamble
•Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at preparing the world for the challenges of the next century. It reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this context, the United Nations system has a key role to play. Other international, regional and sub regional organizations are also called upon to contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the active involvement of the non-governmental organizations and other groups should also be encouraged.
• The developmental and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 will require a substantial flow of new and additional financial resources to developing countries, in order to cover the incremental costs for the actions they have to undertake to deal with global environmental problems and to accelerate sustainable development. Financial resources are also required for strengthening the capacity of international institutions for the implementation of Agenda 21. An indicative order-of-magnitude assessment of costs is included in each of the programme areas. This assessment will need to be examined and refined by the relevant implementing agencies and organizations.

Kyoto Protocol
What is Kyoto Protocol?
•The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases that cause climate change. It was agreed on 11 December 1997 at the 3rd Conference of the Parties to the treaty when they met in Kyoto, and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
•It is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

Aim of Kyoto Protocol

Aim to reduce collective emission of green house gases and prevent global warming
•The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement under which industrialized countries will aim to reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990 (but note that, compared to the emissions levels that would be expected by 2010 without the Protocol, this limitation represents a 29% cut). The goal is to lower overall emissions of six greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons - averaged over the period of 2008-2012. National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.

•The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment countries) to invest in projects that reduce emissions in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. The most important factor of a carbon project is that it establishes that it would not have occurred without the additional incentive provided by emission reductions credits.

•Joint implementation (JI) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment (so-called Annex 1 countries) to invest in emission reducing projects in another industrialised country as an alternative to emission reductions in their own countries. Countries with relatively high costs for emission reductions can reduce the costs of complying with their Kyoto targets by using credits from JI projects, as costs of emission reductions are significantly lower in some countries.



WTO & ENVIROMENT PROTECTION

•The WTO has no specific agreement dealing with the environment. However, the WTO agreements confirm governments’ right to protect the environment, provided certain conditions are met, and a number of them include provisions dealing with environmental concerns. The objectives of sustainable development and environmental protection are important enough to be stated in the preamble to the Agreement Establishing the WTO.
• The standing forum dedicated to dialogue between governments on the impact of trade policies on the environment, and of environment policies on trade.
•Under the Doha Development Agenda, the regular committee is also looking at the effects of environmental measures on market access, the intellectual property agreement and biodiversity, and labeling for environmental purposes
•Moreover, the institutional machinery working under WTO for investigating the trade and environment interface, and making positive suggestions towards the objective of sustainable development, is the committee on Trade and Environment (CTE).


The Committee On Trade and Environment
•The 1994 Ministerial Decision on Trade and Environment created the WTO’s Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE), which is open to the entire WTO membership, with some international organizations as observers. The committee’s mandate is broad, and it has contributed to identifying and understanding the relationship between trade and the environment in order to promote sustainable development
•CTE`s work programme
The work programme covers a range of relevant issues, from trade and the environment in general, liberalization and trade barriers, and taxes, to individual sectors such as services and intellectual property, and relations with environmental organizations.

•The Doha mandateThe 2001 Doha Declaration has a section dealing with the committee’s regular work. The focus is on effects of environmental measures on market access, the relevant provisions of the intellectual property agreement, labeling requirements for environmental purposes, technical assistance, sharing expertise for national environmental reviews and environmental aspects of the Doha negotiations.

Issues Sorted By CTE
Sustainable development
Trade is a powerful ally of sustainable development. The WTO’s founding agreement recognizes sustainable development as a central principle, and it is an objective running through all subjects in current Doha negotiations The purpose of trade liberalization and the WTO’s key principle of non-discrimination is a more efficient allocation of resources, which should be positive for the environment
Environmental requirements and market access
The effect of environmental measures on market access is particularly important to the work of the Trade and Environment Committee because it holds the key to ensure that sound trade and environmental policies work together.So, a balance is needed, between safeguarding market access and protecting the environment. WTO member governments agree that they have to examine how environmental measures could be designed
Labeling
Labeling is one of the subjects assigned to the Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE). It is part of an item (3b) on the committee’s work programme in which the committee is assigned to consider the relationship between the provisions of the WTO’s agreements and the requirements governments make for products in order to protect the environment The use of eco-labels (i.e. labeling products according to environmental criteria) by governments, industry and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is increasing